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CRM1300 Exam Review
Introduction to Criminology (CRM1300)
University of Ottawa
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Chapter 7 : The Courts
Intro:
● Courts are open to the public ○ CJS must be transparent ○ Trials behind closed doors hide what is happening ○ Secret trials = no justice ○ Open Court Principle ■ Media has freedom to publicize court proceedings ■ Courts in Canada are not on TV ● Reporters have access to both adult and youth courts & can freely report on cases - publication bans do occur ● Transparency in courts is important because the public can be assured that justice is being served ● Public's understanding of courts comes from: highly publicized cases, our experiences with the police, courts & corrections and the views of people we trust ● Must balance the public's right to be informed with the need to protect the identity/privacy of those involved ● The most frequently heard offences in adult court are: ○ Impaired Driving ○ Theft ○ Assault (Or common assault) ● 90% of defendants plead guilty ○ The other 10% that plead not guilty either get a set trial date or preliminary hearing date ● The date of sentencing is set even if someone pleads guilty
Arraignment: To formally read the individuals charges- after the person hears their charges, they enter a plea (guilty or not guilty)
Publication Ban: To protect the identity of individuals or specific info about the case, used for youth cases, sexual assault cases, drug bust using undercover officer
Preliminary Hearing Date: to determine whether there is enough evidence to go to trial ● Purpose is to see if a trial is a waste of money and to avoid unnecessary trial ● To determine probable grounds of guilt vs. beyond a reasonable doubt ● Reserved for indictable offences
Plea Bargaining: a deal, where a person agrees to admit guilt in exchange for the promise of some benefit ○ Usually happens behind closed doors Charge Bargaining: Reduce the number of charges Sentence Bargaining: Reduction of sentence Procedural Bargaining: (Not as straightforward or common) In the case of a hybrid offence, if someone pleads guilty, the offence will be handled as a summary conviction
The case of Karla Homolka: ● Part of a rapist case and was offered a deal ● She had to admit guilt and testify about her husband (Paul Bernardo) in exchange for a lesser sentence ● Her sentence went down 12 years
Advantages of Plea Bargaining: ● Easier to get a conviction ● For the person, it could be recorded as less serious offence ● Reduce work for CJS/court ● Saves money for people involved ● Saves family gruesome details of case
Disadvantages: ● Offender might not learn their lesson ● Victim’s family may believe justice has not been served ● False Confessions ● Give public impression society is not fair ● The Crown may not make a bargain based on all facts ● Bargain can be revoked
Former Judge Camp: ● In 2014 he was overseeing sexual assault trial ● Judge camp asked ○ "Why she couldn’t keep knees together" ○ "Why couldn’t you sink pelvis down lower" ○ He criticized her for not screaming ○ "Sex and pain go together so pain isnt a bad thing" ○ Suggested that he was removed, but he resigned because of backlash Judge Lenehan: ● Police saw a taxi pulled over but the engine was on ● Police found women in the backseat, naked breast down, and unconscious ● She had no recollection ● Taxi driver's pants were down and he was holding her urine soaked clothing ● Judge said it's unknown when she passed out (she could have consented before) ● A person is incapable of consent if they are unconscious or intoxicated ● Judge claimed that drunks can consent ● He did not resign, he still works as a judge today
Pre- Trial Criminal Procedures:
Rights upon arrest: Section 10 of Charter 1. Informed of reason 2. See council without delay 3. Habeas corpus (free from unlawful detention)
Options for Compelling an accused to appear in court (other than arrest): ● Appearance Notice: A notice given by a police officer for minor offences telling the individual they need to appear in court at a specific date/time ○ If an individual does not appear in court - more serious offence ○ Gives court date and allegations, followed by laying an information ● What is an "information?" ○ Written document, sworn before a judge or JP containing specific allegations against the accused
● Persuasion Strategy ○ Encourage the accused to talk so that he/she can have a voice ○ "I want to hear your side of the story and if you don’t speak up we will never hear your side"
Russel Williams ● Two first degree murders/rape, collect women's underwear, take pictures in them ● Tracks of his vehicle is how he was found as a suspect ● Psychopath ○ Most psychopaths are likeable, charming ● Would go into women's rooms, take lingerie/underwear, take pics in it, often masturbate in their bed - DNA was found
Williams Interrogation: Conditioning Strategy: ● Says "we" a lot - acts as their a team ● Russell says "call me russ" and he immediately does ● Informal/relaxed ● Small talk - explains the set up of the room ● Super patient - wasn't barking at Russell to answer ● Officer states you're not a sociopath - "I don’t see you as that, you're very intelligent" ● Mirroring body language ● Giving him advice De-Emphasizing: ● "Do we want to continue to let her parents wonder where their daughter is" ● Brings up the 10M investigation ● Brings up wife - concerned about them tearing up her brand new house ● "How will this impact the Canadian Forces: Persuasion: ● "It's your chance to take control of the situation" ● "Last chance to say your side of the story" ● "What's on your mind? What do you want to talk about?" ● Lose credibility if doesn’t get his side out
Tunnel Vision: police fail to see other people at fault because they have their eyes on one specific person
Why would someone falsely admit to a crime they didn't commit? ● Voluntary False Confessions ○ Voluntarily (without external pressure) confesses to a crime he/she did not commit ○ To be famous, protecting a loved one, establish alibi ● Coerced-Compliant False Confessions ○ The person confesses to end intense interrogation, avoid threat, or gain reward ○ Person hungry, scared, tired, isolated ○ This is where there is external pressure ○ Isolated from parents ○ Get a lesser sentence if you admit guilt ● Coerced-Internationalized False Confessions ○ Suspect comes to believe they may have committed the crime (although they did not) and falsely confesses to it ○ Person under the influence, There's convincing evidence
The Case of Michael Crowe - 1998 ● 12 year old daughter found brutally stabbed, parents didn’t hear anything ● No sign of fingerprints/DNA ● Behaviour of Michael the morning of the crime was odd so they took extra attention to him ● He was questioned for 27 hours without his parents, also questioned two of his friends ● Friends said they didn’t do it but gave detail to how they would carry out a murder ● After 27 hours Michael confessed and one friend claimed Michael killed her with his help ● Michael confessed because of intense interrogation ● "I don’t really remember but based on what youre telling me I must've done it" ● Michael was not responsible for the crime which was found later on ● Man wandered the streets looking for a girl and he entered the Crowe home and killed her ● Murderer had schizophrenia
Court Organization: - The intent of the courts is to “help people resolve disputes fairly” - whether they are between individuals or between individuals and the state
Four Levels of Criminal Court:
Provincial & Territorial Courts ● All offenders make their first appearance in this court & most cases are resolved here ● There courts handle things such as: ○ Most criminal offences (both summary and indictable) ○ Family law matters ○ Youth Justice ○ Traffic & Bylaw Violations ○ All preliminary hearings and inquiries, which are held to determine whether there is enough evidence to warrant an entire trial ● Nunavut has distinctive court arrangement where territorial and superior courts are combined so that a single court can hear any criminal matter
Provincial and Territorial Superior Courts ● Hear serious criminal matters and family law cases ● Known by different names across the country
Provincial and Territorial Courts of Appeal ● Appellate courts hear criminal cases from the provincial and territorial courts or the superior courts ● Can hear commercial disputes, property disputes, negligence claims, family disputes, etc. ● Can order new trial if court finds serious errors at trial ● Can overturn acquittal in cases where the individual was tried by a judge and not convicted ● Sentences imposed by lower courts can be increased or lowered
Supreme Court of Canada ● Has jurisdiction over disputes in all four areas of law ● Court will only consider cases that they consider important
● Porn Star ● Narcissistic Personality Disorder ● Murdered and chopped up his boyfriend ● Had sex with his dead boyfriend ● Everything was recorded ● Found guilty of First Degree Murder Charge - Sentenced to Life ● They had a very difficult time finding a jury ○ Jury has to be impartial, but there is a video which was watched and read about ○ Pre Trial Publicity caused it to be difficult to find people with no opinion ○ Jury will see the recording, the majority of people can not handle watching that gruesome of a video
Challenges ● The ability of lawyers to remove or omit certain people from serving the jury ● Peremptory Challenge ○ No questioning, no reason ○ Can simply say "I don’t want that person" for no reason ○ Limited in the number of these they can have ○ Maximum 20 for 1st degree murder ○ Maximum 12 for other offences ● Challenge for Cause ○ Reason must be provided and judge determines its merit ○ Ex: upon questioning a potential juror, they feel the juror doesn’t have enough understanding of the English language, reason gets presented to judge and judge approves or disapproves ● Stand Aside ○ For personal hardship of juror ○ Judge decides ○ Ex: Potential juror feels they cannot pursue jury duty (bad health, recent death in family, etc.) ● Whether or not you serve as a juror, you still went to court house so you still will not be asked again for three years
The Role of the Jury ● Tries the facts and determines guilt ○ "sponges" soaking in what they're hearing and observing ● The jury cannot ask questions during the trial ○ Jurors also aren't allowed to speak on what happens behind the closed doors ● All 12 members must be unanimous -> hung jury ○ All 12 must agree on guilty or not guilty ○ If 11 says guilty and 1 says not guilty = hung jury ○ They then return to the courtroom and tell the judge they cant come to a decision, they are then encouraged to go back and figure it out ○ Mistrial can then be declared = starting trial from day one, new jury, judge, etc ○ They can also choose to just leave it ● Sequestered for deliberations ● Do they give reasons for their verdict? ● Decides the degree of the offence (1st, 2nd, etc.) ● No role in sentencing ● Can male parole recommendations for second degree murder
Jury Nullification ● The jury can decide a verdict against the facts of the case ● A jury refuses to convict an individual who is obviously guilty ○ Maybe don’t agree with charges ○ Feel pressured ● Jury believes the conviction and punishment are worse than the crime committed ● Used when laws do not reflect the will of the people ○ Henry Morgentaler ○ Opened illegal abortion clinic ○ Faced many trials and each time the jury would use their right to go against the law ○ Felt this man should not be penalized
Specialized Courts: Courts that specialize in working with distinctive groups of offenders, including persons with mental illnesses or individuals convicted of specific offences such as domestic violence. Also called problem solving courts or therapeutic courts.
- Often prosecutors and defence counsel work with probation officers and other team members who have specialized training (addictions counselor, mental health specialists, etc.)
- Individuals often on probation and it provides the opportunity to avoid jail
- In “less serious cases the charges may be withdrawn or they will get an absolute or conditional discharge”
- The members of the courtroom acknowledge a number of shared goals such as; a. Protecting the public safety b. Reducing the use of jail and repeated interaction with the CJS c. Reducing time spent in custody awaiting assessment and appropriate treatment
- Persons with mental illnesses or drug addiction will occasionally relapse - these courts respond with graduated sanctions
- Critics argue that treatment is coerced and question whether it would have the same impact as voluntary treatment
Drug Treatment Court: ● Purpose: Address drug addiction as an underlying cause of criminal activity ● Main Goal: Eliminate drug use and related criminal activities
Eligible Participants Must: ● Charged with non-violent offences ● Admit guilt ● Willing to accept treatment ● Appear before judge frequently ● Undergo frequent, random urinalysis ○ They understand relapse is a natural part of recovery ● Accept graduated sanctions for failure to comply with program requirements ○ First time they relapse/don’t follow condition : Less Severe sanctions ○ Sanctions start out less severe and gradually go up ● Develop vocational and other skills to promote re-entry into community ● Lasts 12-16 months
Successful Completion: Drop charges, reduce sentence, end probation order Unsuccessful Completion: Appear in criminal court
Sentencing Options:
Probation: The release of an offender into the community under the supervision of a probation officer - There are several mandatory conditions such as keeping the peace, being of good behaviour, reporting to the court when required and advising the officer in changes in address or job. - Judges can also impose restitution orders, fines or requirements for community service work - Probationary terms cannot exceed three years - Cases where custody is a possible sentence, the judge will often order a pre-sentence report be completed. - Both fines and restitution are often conditions of probation
● Mandatory/optional conditions: ○ Mandatory conditions: - They have to keep the peace and keep good behavior (not commit another crime) - Report to the court as required - Reporting any address changes, employment changes - Stay within a particular jurisdiction
● Optional: - Curfew - Abstaining from drugs and alcohol - Participation in rehab - Looking for a job - Living with an appropriate person/ in an ADULT maximum length: 3 years ADULT average time: 1 year Youth: 2 yrs
Breach of Probation: Occurs when an offender violates the conditions of their probation ○ Hybrid offence ■ If summary conviction: 18 months imprisonment max. ■ Indictable conviction: 2 years imprisonment max.
Failure to Comply: Violating the conditions of a probation order is a criminal offence that can result in additional charges and further punishments
Administration of Justice Offences: Offences that occur because an offender disobeys a pretrial condition or the sentence imposed, such as failure to attend court or failure to comply with a probation order. Also known as system generated offences.
Community Service Work: A condition of a probation order that requires an offender to participate in unpaid work programs that benefit the community, such as working at a library or a community centre.
Pre-Sentence Report: A report ordered by judges prior to sentencing to provide a comprehensive overview of an offender’s strengths and weaknesses, and whether prior justice
Conditional Sentences: Custodial sentences of up to two years that are served in the community - 1995 - A number of strict conditions must be followed - Judges will use this sentence only if they are satisfied you won't be a threat to the community and you don't have a history of disobeying courts - Seldom used and account for about 5% of all adult court cases
● Imposed Where: ○ Court imposes a sentence of less than 2 years imprisonment ○ Criminal Code does not set a minimum prison term ○ Sentence would not endanger the safety of the community and would be consistent with the fundamental principles of sentencing ● Mandatory & Optional Conditions: ○ Person must follow certain rules and regulations ● Average length: 18 months ● Person on conditional sentence can be put on house arrest ● Similar to probation but it’s a more severe form
Effective or Not? The CJS: Advantages: ● Saves overcrowding in jail ● Not there to satisfy the victim but rather the social needs ● Giving offender time to reflect and continue with life can reduce crime ● Cost effective Disadvantages: ● Reduce public belief in the justice system - may look like there is no justice provided ● Rely on offender's honesty - if a person does not follow conditions they'll end up in jail ● Not as bad of punishment therefore it might not cause the offender to learn they're lesson The Offender: Advantages: ● Doesn’t go to jail ● Conditional sentence is more freedom than jail - sleeping in their own bed, getting home cooked meals ● Avoids Stigma- Individuals are more likely to judge someone who's been to prison rather than someone who has done time in the community ● Individual can be productive and have a positive contribution to the community ● Won't be surrounded by other criminals ● Won't be completely removed from family/relatives Disadvantages: ● Offender can't go out with friends and live life as they normally would ● They're still going to be "stigma" and judgement ● Could have a hard time finding employment The Victim: Advantages: ● Restorative Justice ● Offender is getting some form of punishment ● Peace of mind in knowing the offender is contributing to society
Restitution ● Pay for the damages caused. Money/service goes to the victim
Interprovincial Sentencing Differences: ● Slightly more than ⅓ of all Canadian offenders found guilty were incarcerated ● PEI sends more than two times as many offenders to correctional facilities (They have highest incarceration rate) ○ Due to impaired driving being taken very seriously
Justice by Geography: The differences in case outcomes that are a result of where a court is located - Ex; some rural courts may be more punitive than urban courts
Extralegal Factors: Conditions that affect sentencing but are not related to the offender or offence - Ex; the location of a sentencing court - Most studies of these have focused on issues of race, gender, class, etc.
Principles of Sentencing:
Proportionality: Sentences must reflect the seriousness of the crime and the offenders responsibility in committing the crime - The most important principle - Not all offenders are treated the same, depends on the nature of crime, the offenders role in the crime, etc
Aggravating & Mitigating Factors - Section 718.
Aggravating: offence related circumstances that a judge might take into account when considering severe sentencing ● Evidence that the offence was motivated by bias, prejudice or hate based on race, sex, age, disability ● Evidence the offender abused his/her partner or abused someone under 18 ● Evidence the offender abused a position of trust or authority in relation to the victim ● Evidence the offence was committed for the benefit of or in association with a criminal organization ● Evidence it was an act of terrorism ● Evidence the offence was committed while the offender was subject to a conditional sentence, released on parole, etc.
Mitigating: Help to explain the individuals role in the offence or recognize the positive characteristics of the individual that warrant a less severe sentence ● First time offences ● Prior good character ● Guilty plea ● Remorse demonstrated by the defendant ● Impairment of judgement (alcohol) ● Positive employment history ● Provocation
● Rehabilitative Efforts
Totality (Section 718 c): A sentencing principle that considers the overall length of a sentence and requires that a single global sentence be imposed to avoid an unjustly long sentences - “Where consecutive sentences are imposed, the combined sentence should not be unduly long or harsh”
Battered woman defence: A defence that has been used by some victims of domestic violence who argued they had no way of escaping their victimization
Getting Tough on Offenders:
Penal Populism: tough on crime policies introduced by politicians that are used to win votes rather than serve justice - Studies have shown that getting tough on all offenders is a poor criminal justice practice - Canada introduced first high-risk offender laws in 1947
Truth in Sentencing: limits the amount of a sentence that can be granted as “time served” when an offender was remanded
Mandatory Minimum Sentences: remove discretion from the judge as anybody found guilty of the offence receives the minimum sentence regardless of any mitigating factors - Life sentences are mandatory for individuals convicted of first or second degree murder - Removes discretion - Individualized justice
Individualized Justice: Enables judges to consider aggravating/mitigating factors as well as the offender’s strengths and limitations when imposing a sentence; it is the opposite of mandatory sentences
Increasing the Severity of Life and Indeterminate Sentencing:
Determinate Sentence: The offender is advised of their release date/warrant expiry date
Indeterminate Sentences: No formal release date, for dangerous prisoners serving life, the offender remains under correctional supervision for the rest of their lives, whether living in the community or an institution
Warrants of Committal: Documents that authorize an offenders incarceration
Temporary Releases: A type of release granted from a correctional facility so the offenders can participate in employment, education, treatment, etc.
Earned Remission: A type of early release from a provincial correctional centre that has been earned by the inmate through good behaviour
Individualized Justice: Pre Sentence Reports:
Prison Misconduct: A violation of the rules of a correctional facility that are often classified as major misconduct (e an assault) or minor misconduct (e being in an unauthorized area)
Provincial & Territorial Corrections ● Vast majority of inmates serve less than a month behind bars ● Short term orientation toward inmate care because of small sentences ○ Which reduces participation in rehabilitative programs ● Many activities based on keeping inmates occupied (work programs, etc
W13 CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS
● The aboliation of the death penalty in Canada - 197 6 ● The United States is the country with the highest rate of incarceration ○ In some states the capital punishment is still being implemented ● Canada has higher rates of prison homocide and suicide ○ The US incarcerates more people for non-violent offences ○ The gang problem behind bars is more severe in Canada ● Two countries that have very low rates of Incarceration = Japan & Scandinavian countries ● There are 216 jails and prisons across Canada ○ 43 under federal jurisdiction and 173 under provincial ● Sentenced custody or on remand? ○ Remand ● It costs $109,000 a year to incarcerate a federal male prisoner ○ $220,000 to incarcerate a female ○ There are fewer female prisoners, but the institutions still have to be built ○ More physical and mental needs, such as hygiene products, pregnancy ● Why were prisons originally called “penitentiaries”?
Purpose: repent the sins to God. The church and state were intertwined; heavy religious influence
EASTERN STATE PENITENTIARY: THE PENNSYLVANIA MODEL: 19 th CENTURY:
● No contact with other inmates, complete solitude, never left the cell and if they had to, they had to wear a mask in order to reduce moral contamination ○ No association ○ High rates of insanity, suicide ○ It was expensive
THE AUBURN MODEL: 19 th CENTURY:
● During the day: worked outside, but there was absolutely no communication (verbal and non-verbal) ● Silent association
The Lockstep Shuffle: dehumanizing, encourages discipline, shaming Dehumanizing: breaking down their former self with a number ID, uniforms, etc.
THE FIRST PRISON IN CANADA = Kingston Penitentiary ● Opened June 1st, 1835 ● Closed September 30, 2013 due to poor conditions, low efficiency and low space ● Based on the auburn model: silent association ● Maintained features of the Pennsylvania model= solitary confinement
● Closed system orientation: Prison was self-sufficient: grew their own food, power was generated on site ○ The activities in the prison lacked scrutiny which lead to cruel measures (flogging was still taken place until the 1970’s) ○ Inquiry = Evidence of extreme brutality ■ Excessive use of corporal punishment (whipping prisoners smiling, starving prisoners and sexually abusing women inmates) ● Harsh conditions and severe punishments
GOALS OF A PRISON SYSTEM (1938)
- Protection of society
- Safe custody of inmates
- Strict but humane discipline
- Reformation and rehabilitation
THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT (1971)
● 24 men are chosen at random to be prisoners and guards ○ Guards wear aviator ○ Guards inflict small punishments at first such as chores ○ Punishments become more cruel and severe causing severe emotional distress ○ Represents how one's environment can impact the behaviour
PRISON ARCHITECTURE
First-generation facilities: ● Intermittent supervision ● Guard would have to physically walk to the cell ● Great deal of misbehaviours, because the guard could not see beyond a specific cell
Second generation facilities: ● Indirect supervision ● Central tower with tinted windows in the middle, so the guard could have a look on multiple cells ○ most prisoners self-regulate, however there still are misbehaviours
1980’s- New/third generation facilities ● Direct supervision model: the guards would directly interact with the prisoners ● Is much more successful ● Dynamic security: regular interaction between inmates and guards that promotes problem solving, info sharing and building relationships ● Has reduced escapes, suicides, violent incidents, behavior
Correctional Programming ● Establishing effective correctional programs is based on: ○ Assessing needs & risks ○ Delivering treatment models ○ Employing the “3 Cs” ■ Credentialed people, ensure the facility is credentialed and credentialed knowledge ○ Understanding principles of effective intervention
- Employment & Education a. Ex; offender finds learning difficult/lacks a profession
- Family & Marital a. Ex; offender has strained relationships
- Associates & Social Interaction a. Ex; offender associates with substance abusers and has mostly criminal friends
- Substance Abuse a. Offender abuses alcohol/drugs
- Community Functioning a. Ex; Offender has stable accommodation and well maintained home
- Personal/Emotional a. Ex; offender may be impulsive, aggressive, etc.
- Attitude a. Ex; the offender has negative attitude towards the law or employment
The SHU: ● Special handling unit ● In QC ● Unique because it is relatively smaller and typically no one is sent there immediately ● End up there because they cannot be managed in the general population ○ Typically have tried to kill another inmate ● Doesn't matter what the initial offence was ● Constantly handcuffed ● Guards don't carry guns
Doing Time: Prisonization: socialization that takes place in prison; process that takes place in prison; values and culture of the prison
Inmate Subculture: Unique social code of unwritten rules that tell inmates how to behave, think and interact with others Prison Slang: ● Fish = New Inmate ● The Hole= Solitary Confinement ● Shank= A homemade weapon ● Goof/Skinner= Implying they are a sex offender ● Bug= someone with mental health problems ● Rabbit= someone who tried to escape ● Six Up= Officer is coming ● Tipped up= affiliated with a gang ● Catch a ride = to use someone else's drugs to get high ● To Hoop= to hide contraband in one's body cavity
Chapter 10 : Community Corrections: Probation & Parole
Conditional Release ● Inmate has been released prior to their warrant expiry date (most people)
● Starts with cascading -> An individual in max or medium will work their way down to minimum ● Offender is subject to conditions ● If violated revocation of release
The Parole Board (1958) ● 1973- Applicant was allowed to appear before the board (before this, decisions were made without them) ● Granted: ○ 71% approved for day parole ○ 29% approved for full parole ● Denied: ○ Reasons given in writing ○ Can reapply after one year ● ON and QC have their own parole board - all others have the national parole board (NPD)
Parole Day Parole: ● Sentence is 2-3 years -> eligible after 6 months of sentence ● Sentence is 3 years or more -> eligible after serving ⅙ of sentence ● Live in halfway house ● Prepare them for full parole ● Granted by the NPB
Full Parole: ● Eligible after serving ⅓ of sentence (or 7 years) ● Live at own residence ● Serve remainder of sentence in the community under the guidance of parole officer
7 Factors the Board Considers: 1. Criminal Record 2. Current Offence 3. Inmates insight into their behaviour 4. Institutional behaviour and offences 5. If previously paroled did they have violations 6. Involvement in treatment and training 7. Plans for employment
Conditional Release Programs: ● Temporary absences: decision made by prison administration ● ETA: escorted temporary absence, eligible at any point ● UTA: unescorted temporary absence ○ Sentence 2-3 years -> eligible after 6 months ○ Sentence 3+ years -> eligible after ⅙ of sentence ○ Can last for a few hours up to 15 days ● Main Reasons: ○ Compassionate reasons ○ Medical ○ Administrative ○ Rehab purposes
CRM1300 Exam Review
Course: Introduction to Criminology (CRM1300)
University: University of Ottawa
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