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AQA A Level Geography: Contemporary Urban Environments Detailed Notes
Human Geography
Sixth Form (A Levels)
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Contemporary Urban Environments
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Urbanisation ● Urban Change ● Urban Form ● Urban Issues ● Urban
Climate ● Urban Air Quality ● Urban Drainage ● Urban Waste ● Urban
Environmental Issues ● Mumbai ● London
Urbanisation
● In 1950 30% of the global population lived in urban areas, now over 55% do. ● The developed world has contributed little to this increase as it experienced mass urbanisation in the 18th and 19th centuries around the time of the industrial revolution. Although people are still moving into places such as London and New York, similar numbers are moving out ● The developing world on the other hand is now experiencing accelerated urbanisation with the majority population living in rural areas moving into urban areas causing old cities to grow and even new ones to be born anew. In Beijing, the urban population increased from 4 million in 1970 to 20 million in 2015. ● Although the rate of urbanisation is slowing, stagnating urban population growth, by 2050 , 68% of the world is expected to live in urban areas. ● Reasons for urban growth include natural increase (most cities have a younger demographic who can have children) and rural-urban migration.
Processes of Urbanisation
Urbanisation ● Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of people living in urban areas which mainly occurs due to rural-urban migration and natural increase. ● People may migrate to urban areas for push and pull factors such as access to better healthcare, education and jobs. Cities often host a lot of a country’s national economic activity e. Sao Paulo in Brazil accounts for 10% of the population by 25% of the national GDP ● As many migrants are young adults, they are likely to have children which will contribute to further population increase. ● In developing countries, urbanisation can lead to shanty towns. ● Push factors may include famine, drought, poor healthcare and isolation in rural areas, whereas pull factors may include opportunities, jobs, education, better healthcare and hope ● Advantages: the population is more likely to gain skills and have access to better healthcare, reducing mortality, the city develops over time as there are more workers for infrastructure projects
● Disadvantages: Increase in unplanned housing (shanty towns) poses a greater risk to the population in natural disasters, water pollution increases, poor are likely to be exploited, large social divide in cities ● Micklegate in York is an example of a place that has become urbanised shown by the fact that before 1850, the ward was very much still rural, whereas nowadays it is counted as a part of the inner city. ● Mumbai is also experiencing extreme urbanisation
Suburbanisation ● Suburbanisation is the movement of people from city centres to the outskirts of a city ● City centres can become overcrowded due to urbanisation so wealthier citizens may desire more space and a better quality of life, particularly if starting a family, and look to the outskirts of a city from where they can travel into the CBD to access their workplaces due to improved transport facilities ● This can lead to economic and ethnic segregation as wealthier middle-class citizens will move to the outskirts whereas poorer and often foreign migrant workers will be left behind in the centre. ● An increase in urbanisation can increase the demand for suburban areas so these areas expand. ● A major disadvantage of suburbanisation is that it can lead to inner-city areas becoming deprived and derelict as house prices in the suburbs increase. As a way to prevent this urban sprawl, strategies such as a ‘green belt’ can be put in place. This is an area around a city where building is restricted to preserve the rural areas. For example, there is a ring surrounding London. However, developers can work to remove green belt status so it may not always stay permanent. ● Stoke Gifford in South Gloucestershire experienced suburbanisation as a consequence of nearby Bristol's urban sprawl. The population grew by 40% from 2001-2011 and underwent rapid urbanisation in the 20th century from a village to a suburban area. ● As a consequence of York’s urban sprawl, Dringhouses and Woodthorpe underwent suburbanisation in the 20th century featuring semi-detached, detached and bungalow
like high-quality housing ● New shops and services may open due to a resurgence of population, boosting the local economy and creating jobs, but this can drive out the original citizens who can no longer afford the increasing house prices ● This often occurs when schemes are put in place to improve the quality of life in the city area by encouraging economic growth and regeneration. ● City centres house 72% of highly skilled jobs and are 21% more productive than non-urban areas which could entice residents back ● Urban resurgence can cause socioeconomic inequalities as gentrification and excess wealth in newly redeveloped areas can push away original populations as they struggle to keep up with higher prices for housing and living
Megacities
A megacity is an urban area with over 10 million people living there e. Istanbul, Cairo, Los Angeles. In 1950 , there were only two- Tokyo and New York- but according to Demographia, in 2020 there were 35 and by 2030 , this is expected to rise to 43. Over ⅔ of megacities are in developing countries and Asia accounts for over half of the world’s megacities e. Jakarta, Beijing
Megacities develop because of rural-urban migration as well as natural increase. Migrants tend to move to large cities that are experiencing rapid economic growth to widen their opportunities for success and so the populations here increase at an accelerated rate. However, this can mean that there become stark contrasts among the populations with those in extreme poverty living side by side with the rich. Megacities tend to dominate national and regional economies of their countries because companies choose to place their headquarters where there is a large supply of highly skilled workers which allows for rapid economic growth as well as good transport links such as proximity to an international airport.
World Cities
A world city is a city that has political and financial influence over the whole world e. London, Sydney. World cities like London and New York have emerged as leaders in banking and finance so many banking companies such as HSBC, Lloyds and RBS have headquarters here. Most are in the developed world, but some like Dubai and Rio de Janeiro, are in emerging economies.
In 1950 , there were only four world cities: London, Paris, Tokyo and New York. More recently due to the discovery of certain oil-rich nations, cities like Lagos in
Nigeria, have become contenders for world city status as these cities are increasingly important in global economics and business.
World cities tend to dominate international trade and regional economies in their areas. For example, Tokyo is extremely influential in international trade between East Asian countries. World cities have good international transport links which allow them to trade with the rest of the world. They are also generally home to world-leading universities and are centres of science and innovation, with high-quality research and development facilities.
They also entice high numbers of tourists to visit their centres for culture with many influential media and communications corporations as well as theatres, museums and other cultural attractions. On top of this, many people may come to world cities in search of work, so business workers and migrants may find themselves here.
Processes Linked with Urbanisation
Urbanisation can cause cities to develop and change in many different ways and these processes can be associated with this:
Economic ● Cities attract people from rural areas because they offer more job opportunities which are often better paid. This means more people are working and contributing to the city and so developing it, but leading the rural areas into decline. ● Urban growth leads to the development of a range of businesses such as factories and shops to grow in size- providing even more jobs and higher wages and driving the economy. ● Urbanisation causes cities to move from providing primary sector to tertiary sector jobs, increasing higher-wage jobs and causing more economic development in urban areas. ● Commercial farming can take over subsistence farming as a city develops, resulting in a decline in agricultural jobs and therefore a stronger drive to move to the city. ● Economic inequalities may arise due to unsustainable urbanisation. Overpopulation, lack of resources and the higher cost of living can cause poorer citizens to struggle to maintain a satisfactory quality of life. This is exemplified by the emergence of urban squatter settlements such as Brazilian favelas or the Dharavi slum in Mumbai.
Social ● Cities tend to have a higher living standard than rural areas due to things such as access to healthcare, education and higher incomes, which improve the quality of life.
and raise a family, whereas older people tend to move away from the city during retirement, so the average age of cities tends to be younger than that of their rural counterparts.
Urban Change
Deindustrialisation
Starting with deindustrialisation, Western cities have undergone major changes in the second half of the twentieth century.
Deindustrialisation- This is the decline of industry in a country, usually measured by the reduction of industry employment. In the 1960s, developing nations such as China, Taiwan and Singapore became industrialised and were able to produce goods at cheaper prices than Europe and North America, mainly due to low labour costs. By the 1970s the developed countries couldn’t cope with the competition and many industries collapsed, such as the steel industry in Sheffield. This hit the UK hard, particularly in the North and Wales and caused mass unemployment with 3 million being out of work in 1983 - the highest since the Second World War. Unemployment directly leads to a depletion in quality of life as social deprivation increases with worsening health, education, crime, access to services and the living environment. This is the case for deindustrialisation in both urban and rural areas which were once dominated by secondary or primary economic activity such as manufacturing and agriculture. Nowadays, cities with a high percentage of low-earners tend to be 19th century industrial regions, whereas high-earning cities are associated with employment diversity relating to the growth of the tertiary and quaternary sectors.
Rise of the Service Economy- At a similar time, the service industry (things like retail and banking) began to rise and has been the driving force for economic growth in Western countries since deindustrialisation. Tertiary sector expansion is driven by the rising affluence of individuals with disposable incomes who can spend money on the service sector through leisure, entertainment and tourism as well as technological advancements in transport and communication which allow industries to work unhindered by obstacles such as geographical proximity. This has meant that a company's labour pool can be extended because skilled workers can be accessed from much further away, and also meant that offices can be moved out of city centres. Communications have further expanded on this with video calling and online booking replacing the need for physical conference centres and businesses such as travel agencies. Originally, the service sector was made to support the producing and manufacturing sectors by providing commercial and legal centres, but it is now at the forefront of most Western economies. The rise of the service economy has also been joined by the rise in professional, managerial, technical and creative employment of highly skilled and paid individuals.
Decentralisation- As land prices in city centres increase, businesses may relocate to the suburbs resulting in out-of-town retail centres such as Clifton Moor in York. Typically large chain companies are the ones with the means to do this meaning, if their inner-city location is closed down, it could have an effect of reducing footfall and the overall attractiveness of the street. As such, this has caused other city centre shops and offices to close leading to job losses, abandoned buildings and urban poverty.
Regeneration Projects
As a result of the state deindustrialisation left cities in, the UK government have been attempting to regenerate certain areas to encourage the return of economic growth.
Urban Development Corporations- 1979-1990s
● Due to the catastrophic decline of many city centres in the UK, in 1979 , the government created agencies called Urban Development Corporations, which used private sector funding to restore derelict areas. ● The government established the London Docklands Development Corporation to attract new businesses and improve the local environment of the area because the docks had been closed since 1981 due to the size of modern container ships no longer fitting down the river, which lead to high unemployment, dereliction and contamination in the land. Between 1981 and 1998, the LDDC built 24, new homes, created 85,000 new jobs and built new schools, parks and a watersports centre. ● Strengths of this scheme include the rapid and effective changes that can be made by being a private agency, however, the weakness was that it ignored the needs of the local residents and much of the original community has been pushed away due to soaring house prices and gentrification.
City Challenge- 1991-1997 ● Local authorities created a plan to regenerate deprived urban areas and these competed against each other for government funding. They worked with the local community and private companies to improve the physical, economic and social environment of the area.
country and has been getting worse since 2010.
Urban Form
Urban Form
Urban form is the physical characteristics of a city, such as the size (village, town, conurbation), shape (linear, nucleated, dispersed), population density and arrangement (Burgess model, Hoyt model). Since the first human settlements, urban forms were decided on a range of factors such as water supply, fertile soil, natural resources and defensive positions, and over time, the urban form of these cities has changed due to both physical and human factors:
Physical Factors Human Factors
Topography- the physical features of the land can influence the form of cities. For example, steep slopes may be difficult to build on so they will either be avoided, or the poor will build on them like the favelas in Rio de Janeiro, whereas large flat areas encourage low density developments because there’s a lot of space to build on. Water- although lakes and seas limit urban growth, cities often grow next to rivers to access the water and trading opportunities there. City centre shops are often located by the waterfront, rather than in the geographical centre. Some settlements that aren’t located near potable water may have to make adjustments, like Abu Dhabi having desalination stations around the city. Natural resources- rich resources encourage growth in the size and population of cities by supporting the population and economy e. Durham is located by a minefield so has grown through selling the coal found there. Some slate mining villages near Snowdonia may also make money from selling their slate but also use the slate itself to build their houses. Land Type- some grounds are more
Planning- urban expansion can be planned, resulting in developments with open space and leisure facilities, or unplanned, often resulting in slums in developing nations. Infrastructure- new developments can be built on major roads or other transport links, resulting in linear growth. Land Value- the highest value land is found in the centre, so the most profitable shops may be in the city centre, whereas less profitable ones, such as independent businesses, may be located further out. Economic Activities- Ports may be built for trade in some areas, leading to the entire area being built in relation to the port. Past developments- Historic past developments can limit urban growth if they are listed and protected from alteration. This may mean two-way roads are not possible either. e. York is a perfect example of this with the majority of the city centre being entirely a conservation area. The railway station used to be located within the walls, but moved out for more space.
difficult to build on such as swamps and wetlands so this may also affect urban form.
Land Use Patterns in LICs vs. HICs
In the developed world, cities tend to have a Central Business District- usually the oldest area of land of the city where most commercial, financial and business activities take place- surrounded by housing. Although land value tends to be higher in the centre, in terms of housing, value increases the further out you go. Due to the high land value in the centre, much housing in the inner-city area is high density, like skyscrapers, and the residents are often poorer, with lower wages and the number of ethnic minorities is higher. Because of the cheap land, semi-rural areas near urban centres can have science parks and shopping centres constructed there.
In the developing world, cities also have a Central Business District surrounded by housing, but in contrast, the land value decreases with distance away from the centre. This means that the centre often has high-cost housing like luxury apartments inhabited by wealthy immigrants with high wages from developed nations. Surrounding this tends to be a zone of medium-cost housing. It may have started as an informal settlement, but as time went on, houses were improved and some services were brought in. On the outreaches of the city lies the lowest-cost housing on very cheap land. Most settlements here are informal, like slums, and the residents there have very low wages, are in poverty and have limited access to essential services such as clean water and electricity. Immigrants from other parts of the country, as well as from other developing nations, may be living here. There also tends to be a band of industrial developments along any major roads that pass through the city.
Modern Urban Form Features
Modern urban areas have changed to accommodate a range of features which appeal to the economic, environmental and social sensibilities of their residents. Especially in more developed countries, planning has allowed the emergence of new urban landscapes, for example:
Town Centre Mixed Developments
These are areas where land use is mixed- luxury flats, offices, shops and entertainment facilities can all be found in one place, so residential, commercial and leisure uses are combined. Developments are planned by the local council to try and entice citizens back into the centre with opportunities to live, work and relax there. e. Covent Garden, London
Cultural Heritage Quarters
Often developed by the local council to attract visitors and economic development, these areas focus on the history or character of the city and are home to theatres, museums and historical buildings. e.
multi-levelled roofs. e. Isle of Dogs Pumping Station, London with bold colours and Egyptian-inspired designs on pillars. Judge Institute, Cambridge with bold colours and ornamentation. ● Planning prioritises the aesthetics of the city over practical ● Higher social and economic inequalities Cities such as London have elements of postmodernism e. the Gherkin and Cheesegrater are examples of postmodern architecture and the city is seeing social and economic inequalities growing.
While elements of postmodernism can be seen in cities around the world, it is important to acknowledge that the notion of the postmodern Western city is based on the experiences of a small number of (mainly American) cities, such as Los Angeles.
Urban Issues
Urban Issues
Economic Inequality
Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of wealth amongst a population.
Economic inequalities are higher in developing countries because they lack the money and resources to support their poorest citizens, whereas most developed countries have some form of welfare state to provide basic services and income to those struggling financially. e. Mumbai, India where the south and west coast have around 20% in poverty, whereas areas in the east have over 40%. Furthermore, the south has a slum population of 60,000 whereas the centre and the east have between 300,000 and 600,000.
Economic inequalities can also be marked spatially. In HICs, the suburbs are populated by wealthier citizens due to the houses being more expensive and larger, as well as the very centre as house prices are very high here. Poorer populations live in the inner-city where rent is usually cheaper, however, quality of life can be very poor with high rates of crime, deprivation and homelessness as well as a strain on public services and a lack of open green space. This is the case in cities like York and London where the suburbs tend to be quite affluent.
Furthermore, post-industrialised cities may also experience economic inequalities due to insufficient economic restructuring following the collapse of industry.
Contrastingly, in LICs, income inequality is spaced out differently with the wealthiest being located in the centre, and the poorest on the outskirts. The poorer populations on the outskirts may not have access to good transport links, so their job opportunities are limited, which drives them into further poverty and deprivation. There have been studies to show the very direct relationship between accessibility and income.
Economic inequalities can cause a range of problems such as:
● Political and social unrest e. rioting, gangs- the Red Commando is a gang associated with drug trafficking in Brazil that operates unpoliced in some favelas ● A rise in crime, drug use and violence ● Health problems i. cities with higher rates of income inequalities have more malnourished children
Cultural Diversity
Cities tend to have a diverse array of citizens from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds, caused by immigration. There have been a range of significant migrations to the UK in the last 200 years: ● 19th century- Irish migrants from the potato famine ● 1930s-1940s- Poles and Jews escaping WW ● 1948s-60s- Caribbean workers from Windrush ● 1950s-60s- Asians ● 1970s- African (Uganda) ● 1980s-90s- Yugoslavia, USSR ● 2000s- Eastern Europe due to EU expansion The descendants of these immigrants inter-marry and have more children, which is how multi-ethnic societies have now come about.
London has become the first region where white British people have become a minority with 45% (3 million people). More than half of the rise in population in England and Wales was due to migration.
Immigrants tend to move to cities because: ● There are more jobs ● Better access to healthcare, education, water etc. ● More communal so there is likely to already be a similar ethnic community ● A city is the first point of entry into a country ● Established specialist ethnic shops and religious centres ● Urban populations tend to be more tolerant of immigrants
This can benefit the city as it can enrich the city’s character, increase tolerance and events and ethnic quarters within a city can attract tourists, boosting the city’s economy.
However, cultural diversity can come with its own problems: ● Tensions between different groups sometimes lead to violence ● Increased pressure on services to provide for all different peoples e. restaurants may need to start providing halal options, schools may need to support those who can’t speak the native language ● Minority communities can feel isolated and under-represented both politically and socially by a lack of specialist places of worship or shops.
Social Segregation
Cities with high diversity may also experience social segregation- where different groups are separated from each other due to factors such as wealth,
their homes demolished, furthering social segregation and tensions, so recognising these as actual residential areas can limit this inequality. ● The European Social Fund aims to reduce economic and social inequalities by increasing employment and getting people into sustainable jobs. Particularly, they are interested in investing in a diverse workforce, young people training to be in the quaternary sector, and reducing the labour market inequalities women and other disadvantaged groups face.
Social and Cultural Inequalities
● Governments can encourage political participation by sending postcards to minorities advising them to vote and have opportunities to influence decision-making ● Governments can pass laws to prevent discrimination e. companies and landlords can’t disfavour employees from certain races ● New developments can include a mixture of expensive, luxury homes, as well as affordable lower-cost housing to reduce the division between the rich and poor ● Communities can help ease racial tensions e. involving different groups in cleaning off racist graffiti or holding events to bring everybody together such as Notting Hill Carnival.
Example: London
London, a city in the developed world, has issues with economic inequality, cultural diversity and social segregation: ● London is home to some of the richest and poorest people in the UK- this gap has been widening since the 1980s. The average annual income in Kensington and Chelsea is more than £130,000, whereas, in Newham, it is less than £35,000. Low wages and few job opportunities mean that 25% of people in London live in poverty ● Many inner-city areas have been gentrified, like Notting Hill ● London is very culturally diverse with over 50% of the population being not white British, however, the distribution of this differs across the city. In Brent, over 60% of the population is not white British, but in Havering, this proportion is only 16%, suggesting that ethnic segregation is an issue ● Hate crime based on race and religion is an issue in the city e. in the 12 months before July 2015, there were over 800 anti-Muslim incidents ● Social segregation based on age and class may also be an issue because Londoners typically have less interaction with people outside of their age group and class, compared to the rest of the UK. This could lead to some residents feeling isolated.
There are strategies to solve these issues: ● From 2016, the London living wage increased to £9 per hour, compared to £8 in the rest of the country, to increase income and social mobility in deprived areas.
● London mayor, Sadiq Khan announced his plan to build 17,000 more affordable housing which could reduce social segregation by allowing poorer citizens to remain where they are. ● The police are working to tackle hate crime by encouraging people to speak up about it. ● Some charities are calling for better English language education and mentoring schemes for recent immigrants to help them adjust to life in the UK, with the aim of increasing integration between groups.
Case Study: São Paulo
Sao Paulo is in Brazil, an emerging economy, and also has issues with economic inequality and social segregation: ● Economic inequality is high- the richest 10% earn 40 times more than the poorest 10% ● There is also a clear segregation between the rich and the poor. The city’s poorest live in favelas like Paraisopolis, Sao Paulo’s largest with 80, residents. It has high crime rates, poor sanitation, a high incidence of illness such as cholera and a lack of education which limits job options and social mobility. ● The wealthiest residents live in the southwest in areas like Vila Nova Conceicao. These places have large green spaces, better healthcare and access to better amenities such as luxury shops and restaurants. These places also have a high number of white immigrants and the lowest proportion of black people in the city.
Some strategies have been implemented to solve these issues: ● In 2016, the minimum wage was raised by 12% to increase income for the poorest workers ● In 2001, the government passed a law that allowed favelas to be recognised as legitimate residential areas, causing the investment in sanitation, road building and housing improvements e. currently 10, new homes are being built to replace slum housing.
Urban Climate
Urban Heat Island Effect
Urban areas tend to be warmer than rural areas, and this phenomenon is known as the urban heat island effect. For example, London has a clearly defined UHI as the average temperature in the centre is 11°C compared to just 5°C 13 km away in a more rural area.
The highest temperatures are generally found in places of industry and densely built up areas whereas the lowest can be found above parks and bodies of water, or temperature ‘sinks’.
Areas within a city with the same land use (e. industry, residential) all have the same temperature and are known as temperature ‘plateaus’. Temperatures can
street, it can have the opposite effect of blowing completely over the street itself.
Precipitation in Urban Areas
● It rains more frequently in urban areas, and more intensely than in rural areas. ● This is because of, firstly, the UHI effect. Warmer air can hold more water and as the warm air rises, it cools and condenses back down as rain. Secondly, urban areas have a lot of dust and pollution that can become condensation nuclei- particles that cause water vapour to condense around them. This encourages more clouds to form, rather than letting the warm, moist air disperse, and rain down. And thirdly, tall buildings obstruct airflow so moist air doesn’t disperse. ● A higher concentration of condensation nuclei also increases the frequency of fog. ● However, it doesn’t snow as often and there are fewer days of frost in urban areas because, when it does, it melts away quickly due to the UHI effect.
Urban Air Quality
Particulate Pollution
Particulates are tiny pieces of solids and tiny droplets of liquid, floating around in the air. More particulates are found in urban areas than in rural areas with 10-40μg/m³ in cities, compared to less than 10μg/m³ in the countryside.
Sources of particulate matter can include: ● Vehicle Exhausts- they produce very fine particulates (0μm-1μm) and about 80% of urban pollution is caused by this ● Burning of Refuse, Cigarettes and Fuel- this produces both fine and coarse particulates such as sulphates, nitrates, soot and ash ● Construction, Mining and Quarrying- these produce coarse particulates (10μm-100μm) like tiny fragments of rock, brick and cement dust ● Plants and mould- these also generate coarse particulates like pollen and mould spores
Particulates can cause health problems. Although coarser particles will be filtered out by the nose and throat, finer particles (PM10) can enter the lungs and could cause or make worse asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer and heart disease.
Photochemical Smog
Pollutants like nitrous oxides, sulphur oxides and hydrocarbons are produced from burning fossil fuels, and when they come into contact with the sun, the UV light causes them to break down into harmful chemicals like ozone and form photochemical smog.
This is a problem in cities that both get a lot of sunlight and burn a lot of fossil fuels, like Los Angeles, Beijing and Barcelona. These locations often have a temperature inversion as well (a layer of warm air trapped under a layer of cool air) which acts as a cap so the pollutants don’t escape.
Photochemical smog is linked to health problems such as breathing difficulties, respiratory problems and headaches.
Ways to Reduce Air Pollution
Congestion Charging
● People are charged for driving their vehicles in certain locations, at certain times so people are less likely to drive and therefore less likely to produce emissions. ● This was successful in London, where emissions were reduced by about 15% in the first year of operation. ● However, people may drive around restricted areas to bypass these charges, producing more emissions due to the longer journey time and the increased congestion here. Also, with such large volumes of traffic, it’s difficult to accurately process every single charge.
Pedestrianisation ● Vehicles are completely restricted from some locations at certain times, reducing pollution by reducing road traffic. ● Many cities such as London, Cardiff and Manchester have pedestrianised zones, however, this can mean businesses in the centre will receive fewer customers as they can only be accessed by foot.
Public Transport Improvements
● Encouraging the use of public transport means there are fewer cars on the road, so this reduces pollution. Improving bus services by making them cheaper, faster and more efficient with, for example, bus lanes, can make them more attractive and incline more people to use them ● Park and Ride schemes, such as the one in York, can make it easier to access public transport. ● Trams and light railway services which run on lines can also reduce emissions as they do not get caught up in road congestion and pollute less than buses. e. The Metrolink in Manchester opened in 1992, connecting the city centre to the suburbs. The line to Bury and Altrincham has taken 2 million cars off the road. ● However, these improvements can be very expensive e. the Metrolink cost £1 billion, and
AQA A Level Geography: Contemporary Urban Environments Detailed Notes
Subject: Human Geography
Sixth Form (A Levels)
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