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AQA A Level Geography: Global Systems and Global Governance Detailed Notes
Human Geography
Sixth Form (A Levels)
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Global Systems and Global
Governance Revision
Globalisation ● Factors Affecting Globalisation ● Global Systems ●
International Trade ● Global Coffee Trade ● TNCs ● Global Governance ●
Global Commons ● Antarctica ● Globalisation Critique
Globalisation
Globalisation is the process by which the world’s economies, political systems, and cultures become more strongly connected to each other through the global network of trade, communication, transportation and immigration. If there was no globalisation, there would be no interaction between different countries, but if there were complete globalisation, the world would act as a single community. The real world is somewhere in between, but countries are becoming more and more closely integrated.
The concept was first developed in the 1960s after Canadian academic Marshall McLuhan used the term global village to describe the breakdown of spatial barriers around the world, due to the almost instantaneous transmission of information facilitated by improvements in ICT. McLuhan argued that our world had more similarities than differences and that much of the world had been caught up in the same economic, social and cultural processes. Furthermore, he said that economic activities now operated at a global scale and that other scales are becoming less important.
The Brandt line was developed in the 1980s as a visual description of the difference in per capita GDP between the Global North and South and divides the world at about 30° north, but extends southwards to include Australia and New Zealand.
The KOF index was developed in 2002 and is a measure of how globalised a country is based on its economic, social and political status. Filling the top 3 in 2017 were the Netherlands, Ireland and Belgium whereas some in the bottom included Somalia, North Korea and the Marshall Islands
Globalisation is caused by the movement of information, capital, products, services and labour between countries and is not new, as empires in the past sourced their materials and labour from all over. However, the current form of globalisation is more global, integrated and has developed at a much faster rate than in the past. As the world becomes more globalised, countries become more interdependent and, as such, there have been global attempts to try and manage a range of issues.
Five Dimensions of Globalisation
Flows of Information
● Developments in information technology such as satellite and mobile technology have allowed the
diffusion of cultural ideas, language and technology. Information such as financial data or news of current events can be spread across the world very quickly and easily now. ● In 1987, Michael Fish famously falsely predicted that there would be no storm because technology at the time meant that he didn’t know until he got home after the broadcast, but those sorts of things don’t happen any more. In 1987, the MET office was making 1, observations on the weather from satellites, ships and buoys a day. Now, they make 215 billion a day. We can get live updates about issues around the world such as Ukraine and Afghanistan. ● The development and rapid spread of e-mail, the internet and social media has meant that large amounts of information can be exchanged instantly around the globe. This means that people can work and communicate with others who live in different countries. ● Increasing the flows of information increases interconnection and means that people can learn a lot about different people and cultures without leaving their country.
Flows of Capital ● The main types of capital flow are FDI, repatriation of profits, aid and remittance payments. Historically, capital has only been invested within a country, with companies setting up factories or branches in different parts of the nation. However, over time, foreign investment has increased from $400 billion in 1996 to $1500 billion in 2016 and in 2016 , it was estimated that $12 billion was sent from the UAE to India in remittances. ● The flow of global finance has increased from $2. trillion in 2002 to $4 trillion in 2012 and during this time, the global pattern of flows of capital has changed. In 2002 , the most dominant flow was between North America and Western Europe, but by 2012 , this had declined and flows between Western and Eastern Europe had increased as well as flows around China. Overall, financial flows are becoming more connected regionally. ● Improvements in communications and the internet have encouraged this increase in the flow of capital as it can now be moved instantly around the world. ● The increase of the flow of capital increases interconnection as countries’ economies are
other countries through a bank account.
Flows of Labour ● More people are moving overseas with an increase of over 40% of international migration between 2000 and 2015. Some may move because they have to e. to escape a conflict, but others may choose to move for work. ● Some highly skilled workers may move to more developed countries where wages and conditions are better, but other unskilled workers may move due to unemployment and poor wages in their home country. The main flows are from South Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Gulf States to North America and Europe. ● Increasing the flow of people between countries make them more interconnected as people will bring aspects of their culture with them and people are now also likely to have family members that live all across the world.
Global Marketing
● Nowadays, products are sold all around the world, which means that marketing, the process of promoting and selling products or services, must also become global. ● Global marketing involves treating the world as one single market and using one marketing strategy to advertise a product to all customers of the world. This gives economies of scale- it is cheaper to have one marketing campaign for the entire world, than individual ones for each country. Global marketing can create global brand awareness, so customers are more likely to buy the product with a particular logo or name, rather than the lesser-known competitor. ● However, marketing still needs to be adapted to each country due to different customs and laws, such as some countries not drinking alcohol.
Patterns of production, distribution and consumption
Historically, manufacturing industries were located in developed countries and the products were then distributed in the country they were made in e. in 1954 , 95% of manufacturing was concentrated in the industrialised economies of Western Europe, North America and Japan.
Over time, production has decentralised to developing countries because of cheaper land and labour, fewer environmental and waste regulations and improvements in transport and ICT. This has led to deindustrialisation in HICs and the rise of NEEs. This is known as the global shift and it divided international labour into 2 groups: highly paid and highly skilled workers in areas like research and development and marketing staying in developed countries and low-skilled and low-paid manufacturing jobs moving to less developed countries.
The global shift in manufacturing locations led to the rise of NEEs like the Asian tigers, BRIC and MINT, and has caused rapid development there. Most consumption still lies in richer economies, but that is changing. Populations in NEEs are becoming rapidly more affluent and it is forecast that consumption rather than production in NEEs will drive the shift from west to east in the future. This shift will also give Western finance companies huge potential to benefit from the expansion of trade in financial services.
Factors Affecting Globalisation
Systems, Technology and Relationships
The development of new systems, technologies and relationships in a range of sectors including finance, transport and management have been a driving force behind globalisation: ● Systems include ways of working, procedures and methods of organisation such as the just-in-time manufacturing system where products are made in response to demand, economies of scale and global supply chains. Since the 1940s, many new systems have been introduced to make flows of information, capital, products, services and labour to cross national boundaries through developments in IT and financial deregulation in the 1980s. ● Technology has advanced rapidly to be used for information, communications and transport, with the likes of the internet, mobile phones, containerisation and planes that have all accelerated the maximum speed of their purposes. ● Before WW2, most relationships between countries relied on one country losing and another gaining, but nowadays it is more based on trade and common rules. In theory, this means that everyone gains. We have seen a rise in bilateral and multilateral agreements as well as new governance by the WTO.
Financial Systems
The global financial system governs the flows of capital between countries. ● Financial systems are based on companies called investment banks which help companies raise capital by selling shares on behalf of those companies. Those who buy shares are called investors, and they receive a fraction of the profits the company makes. ● In the 1980s, several things made the financial system more global: ○ Information technology allowed investors greater access to information on whether a company was doing well or struggling, and could therefore make informed decisions about whether to invest. ○ Investment banks created new financial products that made foreign investment less risky. ○ Governments undertook a process called financial deregulation where they relaxed rules about what banks were allowed to do, such as charging people more for their services and letting banks invest in a greater range of businesses.
reducing the transit time as it was quicker getting goods off a ship and onto other transport like trains. This made it easier and cheaper for goods to move around the world. Walmart’s ships can hold 15,000 containers to go across the Pacific Ocean in just 5 days. 11 cargo cranes operate to unload the entire ship in less than 2 hours. ● Communications satellites were first launched into Earth’s orbit in the 1960s and have since allowed relatively cheap wireless communication between devices across the globe. This means that even people in rural or remote areas can still access the internet and communicate with others. ● Optic fibre cables use signals of light to transmit more information at an even quicker, almost instantaneous rate. ● Over the past 20 years, there has been significant growth and development in software providing free communication from anywhere in the world including free texts, emails and video messaging services.
Management and Information Systems
New ways of working have allowed companies to produce more cheaply and efficiently. ● Company supply chains have become global as their supplier may be in a different country from where their factories are located to where their research and development department is. This allows companies to minimise costs. ● Larger companies can benefit from economies of scale as it can be very expensive to make just a single product. So they will purchase specialised equipment, use production lines and buy raw materials in bulk to reduce the average cost of each item, giving large companies an advantage over smaller companies. ● Outsourcing is where a company will pay another company to do work that in the past may have been done in-house, usually to save costs. For example, rather than developing their own call centre, a company may choose to pay another company to take on these services. This is often due to cheap labour costs abroad. ● Companies’ working practices have also changed as casual and temporary contracts allow companies to take on workers as and when they are required- they don’t have to pay them a fixed yearly wage, so they can save money.
Security Threats
By forming trade agreements, countries become more interdependent, which makes war less likely. A New York Times Columnist, Thomas Friedman, argued that now two countries that had a McDonald’s would never go to war, but that was refuted by the NATO air war against Yugoslavia in 1999 and currently Russia invading Ukraine where McDonald's left Russia after the invasion began- showing that McDonald's just wouldn’t hang around during wartime. By working together, countries can deter common threats, such as NATO being founded in 1949 to provide security during the Cold War. Furthermore, it can be argued that technological developments have improved personal security and the internet means any malicious intent must be done with utmost secrecy.
However, globalisation can also make conflicts more likely with many developed countries intervening in developing countries to secure resources like oil. In terms of personal security, all our information and data is now available on the internet and due to the increase in interdependence, a natural disaster or pandemic can have implications for the rest of the world.
Global Systems
Interdependence
● Economic- countries rely on each other for economic growth, for example, oil is produced by one group of countries and consumed by another. Consumers rely on their producers to sell them oil, while producers rely on the money the consumers give them when they buy the oil. ● Political- Countries are interdependent on each other to solve issues they can’t do on their own. During the 2015-16 European migrant crisis, Europe had to work together to support the refugees coming from the conflict in Syria. ● Social- greater connections between people living in different countries create social interdependence between the countries. In 2015 , there were 244 million migrants worldwide who build new relationships and become interdependent with people from other countries. ● Environmental- Every country in the world is dependent on each other to look after the environment. The 1986 Chornobyl disaster not only caused cancers and birth defects for people in Ukraine but also in Russia, Belarus and possibly further afield.
Interdependence creates inequalities nationally and internationally usually with the developed countries benefitting. Currently, although inequalities between countries are decreasing- many developing countries are catching up to the developed countries in terms of GDP etc.- inequalities within countries are increasing due to the function of TNCs, global governance and capitalism which favour the richest in society. The Lorenz curve shows the measure of equality in a country by considering the spread of wealth amongst the population. The Gini Coefficient is a ratio of how far a country's Lorenz curve is from the straight line of perfect equality to the overall area beneath the equality line. The closer the coefficient is to 0, the more equal a country is. Denmark has a Gini coefficient of 0 so is quite equal, whereas Namibia’s coefficient is 0 so quite unequal
○ Conflict- Low-skilled migrants may be more willing to work for less money than low-skilled locals. By employing them, companies depress the wages of the local population which can cause conflict between local and migrant populations. ○ Injustice- Migrant workers may work in dangerous conditions, for example, for the 2022 Fifa World Cup in Qatar, 6,500 migrants died building the facilities.
Unequal Flows of Money
● Flows of money can include remittances, foreign aid, foreign direct investment and income from trade ● Money often flows from developed countries to developing countries through investments in infrastructure or the extraction of minerals. Less developed countries rarely have the capital to invest in other countries. ● Benefits include: ○ Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) allows foreign companies and countries to take advantage of cheap raw materials and low labour costs, whilst the host country receives foreign capital and expertise. ○ Foreign aid can be used to improve the standard of living or to rebuild local infrastructure. ● Challenges include: ○ Inequalities- Foreign aid may make governments dependent and have little incentive to improve their own country. FDI can force out local businesses as larger companies with superior capital and technology can make products more efficiently. ○ Conflict- Foreign aid can find its way into armies and help fund wars. FDI can lead to conflict between local people and foreign companies, for example in agriculture, it can lead to peasant farmers being evicted to create larger plantations. ○ Injustice- Companies may pressure governments to pass laws so it is cheaper to produce and manufacture there, for example cutting environmental regulations or weakening laws on working conditions.
Unequal Dominance of Ideas
● Before the 1980s, governments took responsibility for providing welfare for their citizens and controlling imports through trade barriers to protect their national industries. ● However, in the 1980s, many developed countries thought the economy would work better without state intervention- maximum economic growth would only occur if barriers to trade were removed, state-owned companies were privatised and government spending was cut. This is known as neoliberalism. ● Due to globalisation and homogenisation, some people may start developing ideas of nationalism to try and differentiate themselves, such as Trump’s “Make America Great Again” or Brexit. ● Benefits include: ○ Increasing free trade, which has led to more development within countries and less conflict between some.
○ More national pride will entice people to stay in their home country and also fight for their country if the time comes. ● Problems include: ○ Inequalities- Neoliberalism started in developed countries but has now spread around the world and tends to concentrate the wealth into the hands of a few- large, wealthy businesses based in developed countries. ○ Conflict- If private companies and free trade in a less developed country threaten the decisions of a government, developed countries may believe that their intervention is justified and could lead to conflicts. Due to ideas of nationalism, foreigners may be treated badly by locals which can start conflicts ○ Injustice- Governmental and TNCs may argue that free trade and privatisation are the best way to help a country develop and therefore justify poor working conditions and environmental degradation in a less developed country.
Unequal Ownership of Technology
● Globalisation has led to unequal flows of technology, typically more developed countries having better access to technology than less developed countries. ● This interdependence on technology led to the Arab Spring which started in Tunisia in 2011 when a fruit vendor set himself on fire in front of the government building, in protest. This was shared on social media and eventually led to countries such as Egypt, Libya and Syria also trying to overthrow the government. ● Benefits include: ○ Concentration of technology in a single area can lead to rapid innovation which can help people all over the world, such as medicines against malaria and AIDS. Silicon Valley has developed innovations in communications and healthcare. ○ The spread of technology and interdependence on others to share news and organise mass protests allowed Tunisia to successfully overthrow the government and install a more democratic system instead, ● Challenges include: ○ Inequalities- Developed countries can afford better and more up-to-date technology which means their businesses can benefit from making products cheaply with better technology and also having more access to information and communications. In the Netherlands, in 2016 , 97% of residents had access to the Internet, whereas in Myanmar it was just 20%. This gives developed countries an advantage. ○ Conflict and injustice- Repressive governments of less developed countries have used weapons technology sold to them by developed countries to stop protests from their own people. The Arab Spring was not so successful for other countries with Libya’s and Syria’s protests resulting in civil war.
These unequal power relations can be clearly seen in the international response to climate change. Developed countries lead the way in creating targets and making decisions, but they are also the ones to pull out of these agreements. For example, the 2005 Kyoto Protocol called for industrialised economies to reduce GHG concentration by 5% of 1990 levels by 2008-2012. These countries were legally obliged to do so, but Canada pulled out in 2012 and the US never ratified it and withdrew in 2018. The Doha Amendment 2012 called for similar reductions in GHG emissions, but Japan, New Zealand and Russia didn’t attend the second meeting. It is the developing countries who have to suffer the consequences of this and many are looking to COP27 in Egypt to put pressure on developed countries to produce the money they promised in earlier meetings.
International Trade
Globalisation has affected the volume and pattern of trade and investment.
Trade Investment
● International trade is the import and export of goods and services between countries. ● The volume of global trade has increased almost 8 times from 1980 to 2008. ● The pattern of global trade has also changed. Developed countries remain the biggest global traders with the USA, Germany and Japan alone making up 25% of all global trade, however, emerging economies are starting to catch up. China is now the biggest exporter of goods in the world, mainly due to its rapid growth in the manufacturing sector, and accounts for the largest growth of 9% annually. ● Less developed countries are becoming bigger traders, but the rate is slow, with African countries accounting for 2% of trade in 1995 to 3% in 2010. The poorest 49 countries in the world make up 10% of the population, but just 0% of world trade. ● Predictions suggest that the Asia-Pacific region will experience the fastest growth in global trade and sub-Saharan Africa will also see some growth, possibly
● Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is where someone spends money in a country in order to generate a profit, such as opening a new branch or investing in the infrastructure. Foreign investors may be attracted by the size of the market (e. China), the stability of the market (e. Switzerland), the possibility of extracting resources for themselves (e. Mongolia with coal and Liberia with iron ore) or the ability to access financial services (e. Singapore). ● The volume of FDI rose from $ billion in 1996 to $1500 billion in 2016. ● The pattern of investment has changed as, until the 1980s, developed countries generally invested in other developed countries, but now developed countries are tending to invest more in emerging economies and developing countries with China, India, Brazil and Mexico being some of the largest receivers of foreign investment in the past ten years. ● Another big change in the pattern is that emerging economies such as China have started to also
becoming points for assembly of finished goods, with Europe being its most important market. ● More countries have been opening themselves up to trade by removing barriers and creating trading blocs. ● Fairtrade has also risen- a system that aims to ensure a fair price for produce grown by farmers in LICs. Since the 1970s, nearly 1000 fairtrade groups have been set up in developing countries, which sell their products in shops and supermarkets. They provide a decent wage, good working conditions, no child labour and a fairtrade premium that goes to a communal fund to improve the social, economic and environmental conditions.
invest in developing countries, commonly in Africa and South America. ● In 2018, the most invested in countries were the US at $ billion and China at $139 billion in 2018. ● The Covid-19 pandemic affected global FDI which globally fell by 35%. Europe saw the biggest decline of 80%, whereas China saw a growth of 6%. Since 2022 , global FDI has been back up to pre-pandemic levels, but the war in Ukraine and climate disruption are putting this at risk, which could stall the SDGs. ● Ethical investment is the practice of only investing in areas that are seen as socially responsible and generally avoiding areas or companies that cause environmental or humanitarian harm. For example, the Co-operative Bank does not provide banking services to businesses and organisations that they consider to violate human rights & equality, support oppressive regimes, support fossil fuel extraction & production and support the fur trade of animal skins. This type of investment has tripled from 2005 to 2016.
The World Trade Organisation
Some countries limit trade using tariff and non-tariff barriers to shield their industries from foreign competition- this is called protectionism. Free trade is the policy of removing these barriers, which began to emerge in the early 20th century.
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was set up to increase trade and help resolve trade disputes by setting rules: ● Countries can’t give another country special access to their market without doing the same for the rest of the world, except in some cases like trade blocs. ● Countries should promote free trade by removing as many barriers as possible. ● Countries should act predictably in their trading, for example by not raising tariffs on particular products once a deal has been reached.
Trading Relationships
China has seen rapid economic growth in the last 25 years and so has started investing in other parts of the world, particularly Africa. They’ve invested in copper and oil mines in Zambia and Angola, 1-2 million Chinese people have so far migrated to Africa and there has been rapid growth in trade with African countries by establishing ‘special trade zones. Furthermore, it participates in the G-77, a group of the least developed economies, established in 1964 to promote the collective economic interests of ‘The South’ and South-South cooperation for development.
Other trading blocs include: ● ASEAN- Association of South East Asian Nations of 10 South East Asian countries like Indonesia and Myanmar ● Mercosur- Formed in 1991 , as a group of South American countries including Brazil and Venezuela. They allow the free movement of goods, services and labour. In 2015 , they saw a 1% growth in GDP, more than the EU’s 1% ● Pacific Alliance- Formed in 2011 , and are more open to making bilateral agreements with other nations and include Mexico and Colombia. In 2015 , they saw a 4% growth in GDP, close to China’s 6% ● CPTPP- Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership which succeeded the TPP after the US pulled out in 2018. It removes tariffs on 95% of goods traded between member countries and includes countries like Japan and Chile, and in 2021 the UK applied to join.
Market Access Inequalities
Access to markets is about how easy it is for a country or company to trade with one another. International access to markets is determined by the extent of imports and exports between two countries and it can be affected by wealth: ● Developed countries often put higher tariffs on goods imported from less developed countries, so it is harder for less developed countries to access the market. ● Developed countries have more money to invest so they can avoid high tariffs in developing countries by setting up factories there. ● Less developed countries may rely on loans that depend on them removing trade barriers and increasing access to their markets.
Access can be increased by trading blocs where member countries have access to all other markets in the bloc. Trade blocs of developed countries have access to a lot of wealthy buyers, but less developed countries outside the bloc may have to pay high tariffs to export their goods to those markets. This puts less developed countries at a disadvantage.
SDT Agreements
It was recognised that following decolonisation, newly independent nations would not be able to trade freely with the developed world because of tariffs and quotas, so in 1971 , the UN created a category of the Least Developed Countries (e. Kiribati and Chad) with the view to provide special support measures to overcome their specific disadvantages. The WTO forms special and differential treatment (SDTs) which let the LDCs bypass developed countries’ tariffs and
Trade and market access can affect lives: ● Trading benefits developed countries more than developing countries. Many developing countries export mainly primary resources such as copper ore, which are processed in developed countries into items like electronic components and then exported at higher prices, making more profit for the developed country. This can lead to wages being higher in the developed country. ● Good market access can mean a wider range of goods are available for consumers in developed countries, and so their standard of living can improve. ● Trade can also increase interdependence among countries which means if something goes wrong in one country, it can affect many others e. the 2008 financial crisis caused unemployment rates to rise, the war in Ukraine is causing an energy crisis in the UK with the cost of energy expected to rise to £5,000 a year and the fall of Silicon Valley Bank eventually contributed to the fall of Credit Suisse
The Global Banana Trade
Location
Banana is a tropical plant, which grows in warm climates, usually from the equator to latitudes of 30º or more. Of all agricultural products, bananas are the 4th most important food product within least developed countries, being a staple food for around 400 million people. Of all fruits, it is the greatest in terms of volume produced and is one of the 5 most consumed fruits on the planet. It contains large quantities of energy ( 90 calories per 100 grams) and one banana provides more than an adult’s daily potassium requirement.
Globally, bananas are the fifth most traded agricultural commodity and in 2013 a record 16 million tonnes were exported primarily from Latin America and the Caribbean. Since 1941 , some bananas have been grown in Iceland using cheap geothermal energy to heat greenhouses. These bananas are, as such, quite isolated and are safe from diseases like the Panama Disease which is currently threatening the world’s banana plantations.
Bananas are grown predominantly in hot, rainy lowlands of tropical regions. The main commercial producing regions for the export of bananas are Central America and the Caribbean where some countries are very dependent on banana exports. Countries like India, Brazil and much of Africa produce large quantities of bananas but are mostly consumed domestically. India is the largest producer of bananas globally but only exports 0% of their harvest to the Middle East and other parts of Asia. It is also the largest consumer globally, eating 25,000 tonnes per year, which is 26% of global banana consumption.
Trade
The Trade of bananas follows the traditional pattern of developing regions exporting low-value primary products to more developed countries. Exports are dominated by Latin America and the Caribbean which produced 13 million
tonnes (80%). The leading producers are Ecuador (25%), Costa Rica (11%), Colombia (8%), Guatemala, Peru and Honduras. Smaller countries in Central America are now exporting at a faster rate, though Ecuador remains the main exporting country. In Asia, which produces 17% of the export market, the main country producing commercially is the Philippines which mainly exports to Japan. In Africa exports are smaller, 5% collectively, and the two main producers are Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon. The largest importers are the EU and USA which in 2013 consumed 27% of the total exports.
As with almost all commodities produced in developing regions but consumed in richer countries, 90% of the price paid stays in the Global North and never reaches the producer who has the most risks of perishable fruits. Supermarkets and retailers take the most profits out of bananas and they are one of the biggest profit makers in supermarkets.
In the past, 80% of the banana trade was dominated by just four large transnational companies Chiquita, Dole, Del Monte (all US-based TNCs) and Fyffes (based in Ireland). Noboa is also an important producer based in Ecuador. These companies all integrate vertically by owning or contracting out plantations, having their own sea transport and ripening facilities and owning their own distribution networks in consuming countries. This allows them significant economies of scale gains so they can sell bananas in the USA and EU markets at a very low price. The remainder of banana production not controlled by TNCs, is produced on smaller scale family farms, particularly in the Caribbean.
In 2002 the big five companies controlled 60% of the market but now their share is 45%.
Organisation has changed in recent years as big companies have freed themselves of direct ownership of plantations in favour of guaranteed supply contracts with medium and large scale producers. An increasing number of national growing companies based in Ecuador, Costa Rica and Colombia sell their produce either to the banana TNCs as distributors or directly to retailers such as Walmart and Tesco.
Issues
Bananas are susceptible to many diseases so commercial plantations operated by large TNCs apply 30 kg of active ingredients per hectare per year including fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, disinfectants and fertilisers. With the exception of cotton the banana industry is the largest agrochemical input into the environment.
Banana plantations also cost the environment in terms of deforestation, waste (for every 1 tonne of bananas produced there are 2 tonnes of waste), soil fertility and loss of biodiversity, especially aquatic life as pollutants run into water courses.
AQA A Level Geography: Global Systems and Global Governance Detailed Notes
Subject: Human Geography
Sixth Form (A Levels)
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