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Lecture 2 Democracy Without Democrats
The Collapse of the Weimar Republic (V13347)
University of Nottingham
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Weimar Republic Lecture One
Revolutionary & Counter-Revolutionary violence and the threat to democracy
- Europe after the First World War was looking largely different to after the war. Giving way to a fragmented group of nation states – which will cause later problems within the complexity Europe.
- Interwar Europe is newly founded democracy in middle of Europe. Democratic elements forming in Germany. Larger overview collapsed in the interwar years. Do not collapse randomly
Germany after WWI: Historiography
- „Negative peculiar path“: Weakness of Democracy:
o Allied Post-war planning, 1940s
o German studies in the late 1940s
o Crucial book Bracher: The dissolution of the Weimar Republic (1955)
o Wehler, Dahrendorf etc. 1960s
- European comparative
o 1970s and 1990s:
o Werner Naef: Democratic Traditions
o Polonsky: Little Dictators of Eeastern Europe
- Global / Transnational
o 2000-
o E. Manela: Wilsonian Moment
o R. Gerwarth: Transnational Counter-Revolution
First wave of collapse: revolution, counter revolution and economic problems:
- In the wake of the Russian revolution
- Hungary 1922 Franchise is severely limited
- Italy is also post point crisis occurs.
- Between 1923 the first crisis year of the weminar republic – running its cause in economic problems, hyperinflation – post war symptom, rebuilding housing, social security – the social crisis after the first world war. The world economic situation is also weakened – knock on effect in Germany, due to loans from America.
- Poland moves to a more Authoritarian rule in 1926
Second Wave: Global economic crisis and the fascist ascendency
- Second crisis of the Weimar republic, in 1930 – transition to dictator by 1933
- Romania – authoritarian regime under the leadership of King Carol after 1930
- Labour parties gaining power in some European powers.
- Larger context a wider trend of moving towards these dominate strong leaders in middle Europe.
- Portugal 1926, Estonia and Lativa 1934
- Blurs between the two extremes – Portugal is key area where they clash of ideas form the government.
Third Wave of Collapses: The Global Civil War and the Road to WW
- The impact of German Nazism
- Austria 1938 Anschluss occurs
- Spain in 1939 Franco wins the Spanish Civil War
- Cez – Munich crisis and appeasement policy - stable in comparison to over European states due to the background of their elites, holding onto their land well.
Weimar Republic Lecture One
Transition from Democracy to Authoritarian regimes occurs in the whole of Europe – the changes occur not only in Germany alone - use comparative countries to gain good development of knowledge. We see some countries who gain stability after the war, who look opposite to those who face problems due to the war.
Why was liberal democracy so weak in some nations and it survived in others? Main question
General Pilsudki from Poland – an example of Authoritarian leader. Sets up a left-wing army coup in 1926 and regains rule as a dictator.
Hungary – Bela Kun (communist leader) vs. Horthy (right-wing) – the clashes between the two groups of revolutionary and counter-revolutionary groups. The left wing at first due to peasants tax-reductions, but then taken over by the right wing leaders.
The Russian revolution and outcome of WW1 – George Kann – ‘seminal moment’ that re-shapes eastern, central and also western Europe.
Traditional conservative elites, such as nobles, often allied with the army, struggle for influence for the representation of estates and attempt various come backs
Weak foundations are formed in areas on ideas of progress
Rise of unemployment and reduction of welfare policies – lead to widespread problems.
Looking at really why the some countries mange to deal with political revolutionary beliefs – why do they work in other places to gain positions of power.
The movements come to success due to some form agreement between the established elites of the country and the new regime.
The Spanish Civil war is essential – a microcosm of interwar European conflict occurring – trying to limit the power of other groups in traditional elements of society e. trying to limit power of Catholic Church, reforming the army. – the reformists vs. Franco forces. They push for different agendas.
Massive similar problems affecting these countries in the same methods.
Part 2:
- 1918-1923 – violence occurring
German during the Bolshevik Revolution: The Fatherland Party in 1917
- Established in September in 1917 by Tirpitz and Wolfgang Von Kapp with former members of the Pan German League
- Last attempt to rally the ultra-nationalist association of Wilhelmine Germany – very anti SPD.
- Splintering of the party in 1918 – emergence of the new right occurs.
- Trying to gain vast membership to gain support in the new Weimar party
- Last attempt to rail this old traditions – move for a military dictatorship also clear that there is growing unrest in Germany occurring with different parties formulated.
Revolution develops
- When the war is lost – widespread support for parliament and democracy is supported – e. Wilson 14 points.
- Clear change moving away from the Fatherland party
- Social democrats gaining a voice on this campaign for democracy
- Crisis occurring early on
- Leads on to the first stage of revolution from above – the October reforms – the parliamentarization of the political system – allows the majority to form a government.
- These new parties were now allowed to be into power e. centre party, social democrats, left liberals
- who were previously banned – they are linked to new ideas – conflict growing as the former enemies of the previous reich
- The problems are shifted to these new democratic parties – very convent for the elites
Weimar Republic Lecture One
o Ebert and SPD prioritised stability over ‚chaos‘ – clearly driven by the harsh circumstances (hunger, deseases etc.) of the time
Counter revolution: Freikorps
Formation of ‚Freikorps‘ in 1918/
Characteristics:
o Ex-Servicemen and Students
o Anti-Democratic, anti-Bolshevist, often: anti-Semitic e. Rosa Lunkerberg death
o „ Criminal Desperados“ (Schulze) – they attract those who want to cause trouble, violence being used makes these groups diserable
Summer 1919/20: c. 200.-400 members – large numbers
Main Areas of Combat 1919- 20
o Fight Soviet Troops in the Baltics
o Fight Communist Uprisings in Germany
o Fight at the borders of Poland – particular problem as they change alot – causes conflict, national feels are strong in this period
o Are involved in assassinations and murder, 300 -400 poltiicans are murderd for shameful acts acorss germany
They are used to supress the Spartiacist revolt in Berlin 10th January 1919
The reducation of the amry causes many to join this group – ex servicemen
The Kapp Putch – causes – dissolution of Freikorops due to treaty attempts to demilitarise – causes problems for weimar stabltiy – as the government and army are joined – the army does not fire on german people – have to use this group to bring it down.
Events – troops marched into Berlin & when army refused to fire, Ebert fled
Seeckt: ‘Reichswehr doesn’t fire on Reichswehr.’
Failure – highly disorganised plus impact of general strike (last time unity of the left is achieved in Weimar)
Significance of Putsch? Key to show weakness of the government at the time to control counter- revolutionary feeling
The government needs to stand up to this violence crisis that is occurring.
Conclusion
- Roots of conflict between right wing extremes can be traces back to imperial Germany, the history of the conservative right.
- They aimed to reform many areas that they did not e. the judiciary, civil service, army – this causes many problems for the leading groups in the democracy.
- Half hearted revolution lead to strong support from traditional imperial elities – remain – for violent right-wing groups – they help push the violence going. E. Hitler not gaining a stronger sentence for his surprising
- European counter-revolution plays a significant role
Weimar Republic Lecture Two
Democracies without Democrats - Democracy:
- Relates to the wider European context
- Constitutional thought and parties theory
- Broader overview that ties in with the post-revolutionary crisis
Legacies of WW1:
- Impact on a number of ideas, role of the state, what is Germany, parliamentartism – being changed for different people.
- Carl Schmitt: He is a Conservatives Catholic Germany - Book Concept of the Political ‘the special political distinction to which political action and motives can be reduced is that between friend and enemy’. A political trick of finding unity – can rally around the common idea of parties working on a bases of an enemy. Concerns about who takes the decisions at the end.
- Theory of ultimate crisis in democracy occurring as a person needs to make a decision at the end.
- Concept around the crisis of the state, the counter-revolutionary – do the cabinet get rid of the Stormtroopers.
- Hugh Preus – transition to mass democracy – he lows the voting age from 25 to 21. Feel an idea it should including different groups, Youth and returning soldiers – in the transition period. A method of dealing with this crisis, the state of emergence.
- Harry Von Kessler – the collapse of Monarchies, missing symbolic integration of new political systems. – the republic should avoid ceremonies; they are not suited to this type of government. Lacks the symbolic nature. Collapse of democracy links to idea lack that symbolism is argued – missing this authority, within European countries.
- Nobility abolished after the revolution: equality is introduced and women get to right to vote. Social groups changing with the new Weimar republic. It is changing, the perception is taken in a negative like, does not see a difference between the democracy. See in the background is a break down in authority.
- Views of democracy by left-wing revolutionaries: KPD, brining about a social revolution, democracy in the middle part. The state needs to be centralised, should be turned on its head by the working class, and abolished to further their agenda.
- View by a conservative Catholic – unless and embarrassing form of democracy. Stating it is not a real debate occurring in this democracy, it is mask for it. Lends itself to a authoritian idea
- Defence of Democracy – the protestant middle-classes – believing it is an institution that can work.
- Summary – post war political philosophies coming to the surface in different very good.
- Religion being involved
- Ideas of this new formation of democracy – the post war crisis shapes their view on parliament and democracy
- Many are in favour of compromise in the future
First Wave: Post war crisis
- Economic crisis, welfare and Democracy: welfare as the crucial rallying point of the new democracy. The Weimar constitution second part – the reich shall organise a comprehensive system of insurance. It is central for welfare, returning soldiers, dealing with post war situation and get the economy on tack. It is appealing to many, ideas of social security being essential element. Losing trust because of this element of security being offered
- The democratic stability linking to LON and Versailles – the Kapp Putch, Nazi Putt and Young Plan leads to the referendum. The international context is essential for this stability to work – and also has knock on affects. The American loans help fade out the extremist in this period, can help create stability.
- Was the Versailles treaty too harsh? Need to compare it to the other treaties of the time. For instance, the Paris Peace conference 1919 – the creation of nation states, national self-determination and lasting peace. Five peace treaties were issued. For instance Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye – the setting up of the Austrian republic, small area though and leads to economic troubles. These treaties cause new division over traditional boarders and new ones being formed. Also a period of migration occurring where many people moving between nations e. Jews population.
- To what extent was the treaty lead to the complex complications occurring in Weimar. Is it too harsh, will have to compare to others. Or was it other factors lead to the agitation against Versailles in Germany? Why does it become such a role in the Weimar republic as a railing cry – it can be blamed upon – guilt cause
- The myth always shared by these Weimar parties- the all believe it – always against the Treaty – exploited by different parties. One issue that all can agree upon.
1 million unemployed- fear of capitalism and standardisation
there is a large debate- whether capitalism is suitable for germany basically there is a strong fear of american rationalism from the left and right- but also a strong belief in the power of industrial mass goods.
Standardised and Rationalised-
vision- efficiency driven improvement, large standardised campaign in WWI of standardised guns. enthusiasm- new production methods- engineering as a metaphor for reforming society rational and modern life the kitchen as a factory
does this inspire hope? there is also a fear that people will be standardised Ford model T- all embody the idea that people all become the same and the new mass movements- fear of standardisation at the time
also spills over in the area of mass culture where Ghandi’s mass vision opens a new consumer culture mass propaganda which spans from the First World War
high culture and popular culture- lots of visual art at the time- fears of mass culture and mass reproduction
criticism of the german state
Mass Culture- fear- loss of high culture and the legacies of goethe and schiller are in danger- bad influence on youth
city- decadence vs religious agrarian countryside
cultural criticism- fear of influence of mass culture on youth
directed against the american idea of what the germans perceived to be cities of mass culture out right rejection of americanism
and american mass culture
larger background that has been politically exploited
popular fear really
similar mix of vision and fear-
new woman- vision of equality
equality in education- advertising around this idea- new woman- new consumer and independent female and enjoys life in the cities and enjoys the movies
largely advertising a product women are hardly enthusiastic about hate new roles
First female political rights- but there is hardly any enthusiasm about it- part of the revolution but its not greeted how you would expect it to be
equality in the job sector- part of the war effort- post WWI women begin to lose their jobs
educational opportunities- still very limited and very small group of women who are experiencing this
although they have political rights and new model of new woman hood
doesn't really have any correspondence- becomes disillusionment double burden of working and caring for the family
absolute disillusionment with these promises
promises of modern society
taken up in the political debate
moral of women and how she should behave in the modern times
overall emphasis on nationalism by the woman movement concerned with border issues and other aspects of national agitation
similar esque of reforms
enthusiasm rallied around the role of the secretaries- shopping and then to the movies
double burden- nationalist discord and the weimar republic- more fragmented
Debate on Bauhaus- fear- strong opposition of nationalists and conservatives who wanted to send German Kilter against supposedly decadent wester modernism and internationalism
Classes and the fall of the monarchies-
us NO MOARCH NO NOBILTY
Specific social connotation of the discourse in america- SPD- middle classes- ambivalent
consverative nobles the symbols of the ills
native indians- massive- good native american-
Nationalism and Internationalism-
means world peace and new modes of transport erosion of national differences- esperanto
Enthusaism-
league of nations societies
international style
american projections- there is disillusionment
league of nations weak- united states itself withdraws from the role and into isolationism
storng right wing and left wing national criticism
interests of the nation must come first
consequences- Germany joins the league of nations interest- steersman was continuing the wilsoniams hope- how national or international that had this already expired?
driven by nationalist interest
Background- reshaped Germany different aspects of the weimar republic
Loans and Stockmarket crash-
very closely linked to america and the american model
Weimar stability after 1923- depends on the loans (Dawes plan) which bankroll the stability of Europe
after 1945- massive influx of united states culture
Lecture 4 25.
‘New Women and men? Gender and crisis of the Weimar Republic
Topic which is shaped by the legacies of the First World War. Was there a new woman or man in the WR? Period of huge social and political change.
Gendered experience of war, employment, new roles in families, new ‘modern; post-war society challenge established gender identities.
Debates about the ‘new woman’ and ‘heroic male’- imperial rule based on the idea of heroic male, so a previous generation carried on.
Research on women: Frevert, Boack, Harvey, Bridenthal etc. Research on men: Bessel, Theweleit [slightly dated? But got good primary sources in it], Crouthammel, Gerwarth, Eisenberg (Sports- related to demobilisation of the army) etc.
Outbreak of the first world was seen as a great proclamation of male heroism. German women’s movement by Bertrud Baumer: ‘Whatever they may bring, whatever they take, and these times represent the solemn take of the lives of our generation’
Nationalist agitation is also to be found among the women’s movement and the bourgeois women’s movement. Also gets involved in the issue on the Ruhr, and bolsters the idea of black males raping white female.
Thus, gendered changes can only be understood with the backdrop of the First World War.
There is a shock for women during the First World War. Tasks for housewives become more labour-oriented. Change in the way households are run in many families. For the working class families there is a large wave of unemployment. Wages for men in the army is lower than before the war thus there is a reduction in household income by 50%. Women are drawn into the war effort by 1916 as well as the family labour market. Bessel highlights that the participation of women in industry and other sectors was already on the increase and the war didn’t interrupt this long-term trend just changed the sector in which women worked- the war effort and munition factories (700,000 in munition factories). Giving birth to children during the war is viewed as very important and so during the war sale of contraceptives is limited. Women more prevalent in the welfare state- helping each other, looking after children and providing provisions. Welfare state in its expansion during the WR as a result of the expansion during the First World War. There are 2,000 female employees in the welfare program. During WW1, demands are brought forward for a new political role for women. BDF in 1917 demands the reform of Prussian-three class franchise being extended to women.
Women involved in political movements. Pacifists such as Lida Heymann. SPD women. Women involved in the large waves of strikes at the end of the war and demand an end to the war and peace in April 1917.
The revolution takes place in 1918. It began as a military revolution so female involvement is quite limited. Only two women involved Noack (SPD) and Leu (USPD). Revolutionary female Luxembourg does not get voted onto the revolutionary council. In the first elections, women are a 90% turn-out: SPD 49 delegates; DDP 6; Centre 6; DVP 1; DNVP 3 the only party which never has a female delegate is the Nazis.
Women after 1919 faced with disillusionment. Early mobilisation of left dwindling; women turn out at elections decreasing; organisation in trade union and parties dwindling. Why? Women now encountered more restrictions. Women relegated to minor positions in the parties; and so women voters did not vote to a party because it did not have many female representatives, which used to galvanise mass women voter turn-out. Women however remained highly organised, e. Catholic Centre Party remained a female organisation. Close relation with party and voters.
Also a workplace disillusionment. There was a rationalisation in industry which led to high levels of unemployment. This soars to 10%. This heavily affects women.
Lecture 4 25.
Women are pushed out of the job market. E. cut in the civil service, 1923. 1932 law on the legal position of female public servants- legally bound to dismiss married female civil servants. Campaign to push women out after world economic crisis.
This all gives rise to the myth of the ‘new woman’. Interesting about this myth it is pigeon holes- a woman is young, 20s, idea that it is a temporary career; moves away from highly skilled jobs which are not very often portrayed and are out of the spot; instead a focus on low skilled typist and clerical assistant. Gendered division of labour- women were given routinely tasks in the new industries. Frevat “Fantasy world of the cinema attracted many w/c girls to this kind of work, elegant customers crowded around the counter, making charming conversation with the assistant until one of them whisked her off to a marriage of happiness and luxury”. A large core of women viewed this as very desirable at the time.
Role of the modern Americanised housewife. There was an emphasis on rationality, planning, keeping the house, domestic technology- there is no more servants you do it all on your own. Not that women work less because they have a washing machine but time is freed up and now you can devote more time to your children, their wellbeing, and the nutritional value of food.
Sexuality
Use of contraception of low. Initially mainly used by higher classes. Lack of contraception led to a high demand for abortion in insecure times- also due to demand to keep the family size down in times of economic precarity. Idea of the ‘immoral woman’ Demands of the women’s movement: campaign for the abolition of 218.
Conclusion
Strong appeal of nationalist movement of WW1 to the ‘borderland movement’ Hopes and disilusionments in the workplace and politics Modern role definitions and how this was challenged
THE NEW MAN?
Herosim of the ‘front generation’. Bessel: ‘there was no typical experience of the conflict, no uniform experience of the ‘front generaton’’. 13 million mobilised; age difference and regional differences amongst men so they often didn’t get on very well. There was especially conflicts between the soldiers and officers. The experience at the frontline therefore was not coherent. Gendered distinction between the ‘two societies’; the homefront and the fighting front. Extremely chaotic demobilisation. Huge unemployment as industrial production was laid off or disrupted. There was no real ‘returning of the undefeated’; many simply gave up and deserted. They returned home as quickly as they could. How this was translated into the mythology of the front generation? There was a huge different between the reality and the strong discourse on ‘male heroism’. So why was a mythology generated in the first place if research says this was not really the case? They needed to combat the stigma that ‘the fighting front has disintegrated’. Shifted the blame to the home front and actually played to the ‘stab in the back myth’. Nationalist party creation; political reasons from the right, a political discourse they instrumentalised. Social connotations, Friekorps literature. Right wing nobles did not want to get the stigma that they had actually socially ‘fallen from great height’. Right wing authority- we fought the war now we need you to fight the revolution; they needed to keep the fighting spirit alive. Exploited for political end: Langemarck day as the day of ‘heroic dying for the fatherland’. Above all, the myth created an alleged male, ‘unity’ that legitimised the specific role of men in politics after the changes of 1918/1919, most notably of course on the right and among the NSDAP where the ‘experience’ of the trenches’ was galvanised into an anti-feminist political agenda. Hitler becomes the archetype, males from the war believe they should follow right wing politics? The largest impact was on the ‘war youth generation’.
Male participation in the war includes welfare. Welfare for war victims was one of the most important pieces of legislation. More than double the cost of unemployment relief. Huge debate in the early 1930 when welfare cuts were made. Under Groening this takes place, and Hitler says the welfare state has betrayed you.
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Lecture 7 Youth and Generational Conflicts [5 should have been just before the end of term]
Popularity of Youth Movements
Different milieus crucial for voting behaviour [particularly industrials, working class, catholics] they come to a high point before dissolved in the Third Reich. They develop in countryside as well as cities. Youth movements are part of these milieus
e. Protestant urban middle classes- > Wandervogel (1904)-> student fraternities.
Normally come up at the turn of the century. Reflects ongoing problems of urbanisation. Peukeurt- crisis of modernity to a certain extent.
Huge stronghold of confessional Catholic youth organisations- play largest role in WR, more than political groups.
Working classes -> Social Youth: the Falcons (1904) up to 5,000 members.
Protestant Nobles-> no formal movements, but large networks for younger nobles.
Originate at end of 19th C- background is the rapid pace of modernisation, urbanisation, ‘crisis of modernity’-> ‘Kulturkritik’-> Wandervogel
Pace of urbanisation still quite fast.
Cities are massively enlarged; Berlin becomes the greater Berlin area.
Other reasons
Admiration of ‘youth’ in neo-romantic literature o Glorification of war and racial warfare in this o Discovery of the period of adolescence o Glorification of youth in WW1- it affects most young people
Discovery of Adolescence as a particular period o Youth/Adolesence 14-21 [can’t vote either] o Discovery of childhood o Specific period life characterised by the middle-classes who enjoyed longer education in university etc.
Idealistic reform ideas about the FUTURE often personified through ‘young people’ after WW o Americanisation and the future of Germany e. the Bauhaus o Writing about how to educate young students- they are the focus as they are the future
Identification with new media e. cinema, as young media
Wandervogel
Groups of young grammar school young men who go hiking in the countryside
Founded in Berlin-Steglitz (middle-class quarter, Grammar Schools) in 1901
Spread in protestant areas
1911: girls allowed to join/ initially boys organisation
Gender issues that affect youth movement as they do in the wider society after the first world war
Varying degrees of anti-Semitism/ Folkish ideas come into play
By 1914 25,000 members
Steeped in conservatism neo-romanticism
Singing, admiration of the country-side and neo-romantic idea of TRAVELLING- finding yourself and coming home.
State-led control and exploitation of the youth movement
Movement that grows from below but not completely distinct from the state
State plays a role in setting up youth movements and tries to steer them in certain directs
E. Jugendeutschlandbund (1911): official youth organisation established by Colmar von der Goltz
Controlling the way the youth behaved FROM ABOVE. [as well as from below]
Harvey: huge problem during ww1; expansion of state-led youth welfare during WW
Exploitation of ‘heroic dying’ of Wandervogel members in Langemark on 10th November 1914 o For the Germans this is not tradition to go to this memorial as it was so politically exploited by the idea of ‘heroic dying’
Youth Movements post 1918
Political radicalisation and social crisis between 1918 and 1923 deeply affects the youth movement
Friekorps, young students join them
Young people involved in this- age plays a role in political radicalisation process
2
Youth exploited as key metaphor for rebellion exploited on the left for revolution and on the right (Freikorps)
Historiography: o Wabdervogel/ Bundische Youth (Stachura) o Working class unorganised (Peukert/Rosenhaft) o Working class organised (Jahnke/Ebert) o Girls and Youth (Harvey) o ....
Regulating Youth 1900-
Regulating youth becomes strong through schools
Reform ideas about sexual education comes into play
Huge campaign which shows the insecurities of the attempt to control the youth
Censorship plays a role- they thought about to what extent can you expose youth to scenes of sexuality and violence?
Late 19th C: ‘toughs’ (Halbstarke)- working class youth seen to be causing trouble in eyes of the state – social problems detected in the cities o Restriction of working class youth organisation to ‘cultural aspects’ o Work of youth welfare organisation, the church, city authorities to regulate youth o Increasing crack-down on youth anti-war agitations (Hamburg)
Youth Welfare and Unemployment
Regulation of social youth experiences
Unemployment post war hits youth hard
Post-currency reform, rationalisation and economic crisis
Unemployment strikes higher among 14- 21 year old than the rest of the population because at the same time they receive less benefits
Specific Problems of Youth in the WR
Youth organisation addresses specific challenges in the WR/ political fights o Wandervogel: Border protests and questions o Questions, travels to ethnic German
Bundische Youth a Bridge to National Socialism?
A bridge that was exploited which turned into something more nationalistic than it originally was
More organised form of Wandervogel, merge from W and Boy Scouts in leadership
More radical ideas than original Wandervogel
Left and Right wing- not uniformed
Shared ideas of nationalist class-less society experienced in Vegetarian Labour Camps
Primary Sources from Ander und Falken, Artamanen-> bridge to hitler youth
But as the same time has left wing members such as ‘Tusk’ and it is that sort of variety
Staachura argues that because of the variety it is not a forerunner of the Hitler youth
[bit like relationship between DNVP and Nazis] very right wing elemenst in Bundishce Youth
Confessional Youth
Highest share of all youth groups were confessional (2 million)
Protestant: Bibelkreise
Catholic: Quickborn
Jewish: Blau-Weis
Political Youth
KPD- KJVD (50,000 members)
SPD- SAJ (100,000-50,000 in 1923) Flacons, Kinderfreunde (200,000 members in 1929)
USPD- Sozialist Prolterian Youth
DNVP- Bismarck-Youth (40,000)
Hitler Youth (figures vary between 50-100,000) o This was not THE organisation but one of many is the key thing to draw out from this
Youth Culture in WR
Lecture 8 The Radical Right and Fascism in Europe
In the inter-war years not only just in Germany, fascism is a newcomer on political scene. Born out of WW1; characterised by paramilitary organisations. Similar forms of politics coming up across all of Europe. Politics a battle of the definition between friends and enemies; Carl Schmitt.
Gender stereotypes visible in fascist movements.
Trade-off between Bolsheviks revolution 1917 and Fascism the opposite of this
Fascism challenges liberal parliamentarism and tries to destroy all it. Defining feature of fascism, they are anti- parliamentary.
After WW1 fascist inherit anger and enthusiasm of WW1 years. They portray themselves as a militaristic, male oriented movement of the youth; against old-style conservatism.
Fascism feeds an anti-Versailles sentiments; post—war minority conflicts; and targets the League’s internationalism and promotes radical nationalism.
Fascism challenges core developments of modern society such as equal rights for women and Jews, but herald’s modern technology.
Fascism growth depended on support of their conservative right. E. in Germany coalition between DNVP and Fascists. This is a European problem of political relationships.
What are the main differences between the DNVP and NSDAP?
Similarities in the treatment of women Restoration of the monarchy- DNVP disagree in degree of support; but definitely a view of NSDAP. NSDAP want a one person/party dictatorship around the figure of the dictatorship Dislike for the leftist Weimar constitution; they established the same core enemies; and communists; varying degrees of anti-Semitism in DNVP, strong in NSDAP. Blamed leftists for the Paris Peace Conference and signing of the TofV- stab in the back myth Differing social support base: traditionally DNVP upper class; NSDAP gained more support from middle classes, agrarians and rural. [maybe slight differences between classes of leaders and voters] Differences but also core similarities which allow for a collusion in their politics. Varying degree of ideas on border-revision in the East
Was it a seizure of power of a hand over of power?
Hand over, Hindenburg thought they could control Hitler. DNVP wanted to try and work with them. NSDAP had a majority However, the establishment of dictatorship by ruthless means suggests more of a seizure of power. They called themselves a ‘seizure of power’ as it looked best for their reputation and propaganda but looking back it appeared in reality more as a handover. Even though Hitler was appointed Chancellor, they tried to control him, they didn’t give him this unlicensed power but he took it.
Similarities in the dictatorships of Hitler and Mussolini. Both aspire to varying degrees to a totalitarian control of society. Both want youth organisations under their total control. Both have varying agreements on the abolition of the rule of law and the emergence of the ‘dual state’. NSDAP want the state and another version of the state ruled by the party. The same occurs with the army; structures outside of the traditional structures ruled by the Nazis. Both agree on use of violence but disagree on the intensity. In Italy the standards for death penalty are low but for Germany they are very high- this is something peculiar to the Germany Nazi movement. Main differences; relations to the Church, Army and the King whereas in Italy the Catholic Church and King maintain a strong rule, yet in Germany these institutions recede; transformation of political system; speed of consolidation- Hitler swift in consolidating power and M takes much longer- this has to do with the preconditions in German which enabled Hitler to create a radical regime so quickly, The degree of anti- Semitism is one of the key difference. In Italy there is no coherent anti-Semitic ideology until 1938; racism increase with the war-effort in Ethiopia; very reluctant cooperation in the German led holocaust on the part of Italy. The Holocaust really distinguished German Nazism from other Fascist dictatorship.
Did Fascism create a ‘classless’ racist welfare dictatorship?
H and M aim to create a supposedly classless society Historians disagree on the degree of social change Marxist historians disagree hat social change took place Some liberal historians have analysed that a ;social revolution’ took place in Italy and Germany There is a massive difference between propaganda and reality; caution as to what they advocate and what they actually do. Areas of social change: o Class structure o Regional differences o Role of the church o Roe of women and youth o Racism and social change o War and social change o Massive social change in Germany as an unintended consequence of the Second World War (extermination, expulsion, war casualties) yet historians are trying to study the INTENDED consequences of social change- must be careful in this.
Fascist foreign policy: Italy and Germany both set themselves up as revisionist powers. Differences in their imperial plans. While after 1937 there is a fall of many countries into Fascism- they had underlying factors which predicated this. Czechoslovakia was able to stay stable for the longest- because of their land reforms. This is the last democracy that collapses at the eve of the Second World War, and the remaining parts after this are occupied. This is how other countries also react to the general problems of democracy in the run up to the Second World War. Failed attempts of Fascism occur in France and Britain.
1945 the Fall of Italian Fascism. Military failure and social unrest to collapse of Fascism in Italy in 1943. Germany intervenes and Mussolini is made head of a puppet state. Fascism in Italy is remembered very differently to German fascism. There was a home0grown resistance movement to this home-grown puppet state. Despite attempts to topple Hitler in 1945, there was not enough resistance for this to be successful. In the last two years of the war, the relationship of consent and coercion untangled leading to wide-scale terror of ‘Germans on Germans’. This accelerates the disintegration of the regime and delegitimises Fascism fundamentally before allied re-education.
b. Accurate for larger regional context c. But: needs to be complemented by further aspects: of cities, industrial pressure groups, middle- classes, individuals, age cohorts and gender as well as the problems of parties that were loosing voters
The Nazi Vote
Makes inroads into those regional milieus that are exposed to massive social, economic and political change after WW1 that is aggravated by various crises since the late 1920s.
e. Appeal to German Farmers to Vote NSDAP mentions: Anti-Americanisation; Anti-Marxism; Anti- Parliamentarism; Anti-Semitism; Border Issues in East Prussia.
They are not only exploiting the weaknesses of WR, but also presenting a framework in which they conceptualise a new society. They appeal to : a mystified experience and right-wing interpretation of the ‘front’ in WW1; male comradeship across classes; a clear distinction between friend and enemy (idea of fighting against Soviet Union East but West also has evil intentions and have domestic enemies of Jews etc.)’; Romantic nationalism of the youth; the role of women as mothers of the nation etc.
Storer on the WR details the British view on the WR after 1933. Mass European reaction to the WR; but not much on Hitler as it is only when he becomes Anti-Semitic that it becomes clear that Germany has fallen to extreme fascism.
Nazi Voters
They have previously experienced the crisis of parliamentary democracy in the WR with Muller and Bruning Cabinet’s in which they were running out of options. After this, a return to parliamentary democracy seems unlikely?
Papen and the ‘Cabinet of Barons’- clear crisis of conservatism; noble members whose authority and political standing has been undermined and now quite weak. This is the second option that fails while Hitler is in the Reichstag.
Third option by Schleicher and the attempt to ‘split the radicals’.
- Right-wing conception of ‘Querfront’
- Inclusion of all except the unions
- Splitting of NSDAP Strasser group vs. Hitler group
- Fails on all levels
Option number 4 is the state of Super-Emergency rejected by Hindeenburg for political reasons. Some argue he rejects because he believes in Weimar Constitution yet this is a bit ambivalent argument.
The coalition govt Hitler-Papen-Hugenburg
- DNVP acting from a position of weakness, splits in the party
- Papen weaknesses already exposed
- Hitler leader of strongest party, gambling on, ‘all or nothing’, strong paramilitary forces, cross-class appeal.
Why did they run out of options?
Lack of public belief in paraliamentarism which meant they had to do extreme things but still tried to call it democracy which didn’t work... Economic crisis and Young Plan led to a collapse in Bruning’s govt which meant that democracy began to chip away; started the rolling ball of failure of democratic options which led to appointment of Hitler
Crisis and Destruction
Hand over or seizure of power?
Hand over, then destruction and speedy establishment of the dictatorship
28/2/1933 Reichstag Fire; Hindenburg signs emergency decree (used as a pretext for anti-communism; SA Terror and Constitutional Weakness)
5/3/1993 Half Free Election; Hitler youth brings people to election booths [not free becomes terror brings people to the elections]
21/3/1993 Day of Potsdam: Day of Legitimacy
23/3/1933 Enabling Act: Social Democrats are only party to resist abolition of Democracy. DNVP and Centre Party swung to right and eventually become authoritarian and agree to self-dissolve and give up on parliamentary democracy. Not really a surprise from DNVP; so discussions centre on why this move from the centre party- defensive position similar to behaviour during imperialism in Bismarck’s time? Communists not even allowed to vote in this; not a legitimate vote but at this point no one cared about this fact anymore
Anti-communism spills over into the destruction of working-class labour organisations as in 2/5/1993 Trade Unions Dissolved
14/7/1933 One Party State established
30/6/1934 Night of Long Knives
2/8/1934 Hindenburg dies; Hitler becomes Fuhrer and Chancellor.
Basic rights gone; parliament gone; so does not play a role anymore
Why is Hitler able to consolidate so quickly?
Climate of authoritarianism on that point; impetus for fighting communism. Hitler generally good at political manoeuvring- he removed all opponents internally externally, left and right.
Protestant and Catholic Churches are taken out of the equation and replaced by paroty organisations such as Hitler Youth and so on. Except for SPD no one really stands up for democracy anymore. The depths of democratic crisis and WR experiences is one of the main causes for the speedy establishment for dictatorship and also paved way or RADICAL dictatorship left without any other checks and balances and the obstacles are taken out of the equation.
Can see that in Italy this process takes much longer as the democratic crisis was not as severe (shows why it was speedy in WR). Failed in Britain as strong consverative party and was able to fend of fascism by being able to stick to its traditional conservatism much more strongly.
French Strength of Republicanism
Conclusion
- Legacies of WW1 impact of political thinking, violence, and the erosion of traditional conservative elites and parties
- The breakthrough of organised labour and the transformation of the 19th C party caused varying problems
- Threat of radical left after Bolshevik revolution
- The rejection of republicanism
- Preverlance of authoritarian thinking
- The outcome of Paris Peace Conference continually exploited
- Inability to adopt rapid social change and economic crisis of the reigning governments and the exploitation of class, age, and gender issues
- Problems to adapt to Americanisation
- Multiple economic crisis
- Most democracies authoritarian in Europe.
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Lecture 2 Democracy Without Democrats
Module: The Collapse of the Weimar Republic (V13347)
University: University of Nottingham
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