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Merton Theory - Lecture 7
Criminological Theory (m900)
University of the West of England
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Introduction to Criminological Theory
Robert Merton and Strain Theory
Robert Merton (1938, 1959, 1964, 1968) sought to develop & modify Durkheim’s concept of anomie (Anomie is a social condition in which there is a disintegration or disappearance of the norms and values that were previously common to the society.) the concept to make sense of America’s crime problem.
According to Chicago school theorists the roots of crime were to be found in one particular area of America society – the slums. People become criminal by learning deviant values. Merton doesn’t completely reject this theory – he does accept that crime is especially found in poorer areas but disagrees that bad neighbourhoods are to blame for the crime in their areas.
Merton believes the root cause of crime lies in the whole fabric of American society, not particular areas.
Key ideas of Merton’s strain theory
First Part: Socially induced strain. Crime in America is produced by a process called socially induced strain. US society is very strange because:
- American culture places a strong emphasis on the need to be economically successful – central value is materialism. Status = amount of money.
- This is a universal value; the goal of money success is held for every American person to aspire to – so therefore they can never be satisfied. Always chase the American dream. The American dream is also based on the idea of equality of opportunity.
America has its own image of itself – the land of opportunity and freedom. Sees itself as society where rewards and status are given fairly based on the work, they put in.
Merton (1938) identifies 2 components of American culture:
- Materialism (‘money-success’)
- Meritocracy (‘equality of opportunity’)
Merton says, ‘The cardinal American virtue, “ambition”, ultimately promotes a cardinal American vice, “deviant behaviour”’.
Why should the desire for success lead to deviance? The social structure is highly unequal. In the US there are huge social inequality – classes, ethnicity. This limits the access for some people for money.
There are many ways to get money – quantifications, education, family work, employment. But members of the working class are held back/restricted in this competitive struggle to achieve success. This is because if you are working class, you are starting the race far behind other people. Meaning you have to be even more special/talented to have any chance at all of getting money success.
Therefore: Deviance results from mismatch between opportunity (structure) & aspiration (culture). So American society produces intense pressures to deviate.
Second Part: Typology of adaptations. Merton (1968:140) outlined 5 modes of adaptation to strain:
- Conformity (pursue goals by prescribed means): typical response for most people is to conform. People continue to endorse the goal of money success even if they don’t achieve it, they also at the same time believe in the rightness of the rules. The stick with the law even though the law prevents them from being successful. They justify to themselves that their lack of success is due to themselves, because they couldn’t do it, so they don’t deviate (they don’t blame the law and don’t experience injustice/frustration).
- Innovation (pursue goals by illegitimate means): Except money success as a worthy goal but turn to crime when they find that completing their goal is blocked. stick to goal but find a way round the rules. Turn to crime to achieve their goal. Usually theft, robbery, property crime. This is common among people at the bottom of society – as they have more blocked opportunities and more strain.
- Ritualism (abandon goals but endorse prescribed means): on the surface remain committed to money success, but in reality, they aren’t very bothered and have scaled down their efforts. They stick to the rules of society but cope with strain by reducing the goals. They realise that they cannot reach their goals.
- Retreatism (abandon goals & prescribed means): People who make a more =dramatic response to strain – reject goal of money success AND the rules of society. In society still, but not part of it any longer. Usually resort to drug and alcohol – ways of escaping from the pressures of society (leads to suicide)
- Rebellion (replace goals & prescribed means with alternatives): Those who wish to change the rules of society and its values. They are also alienated from success goals, but they want to replace those rules and goals with others that are better. E. socialists – endorse a different set of values to those of the American dream, pulling together and helping one another instead of a ‘race’/materialism.
What role does Anomie play in Merton’s theory?
Merton (1938) develops 3 of Durkheim’s ideas:
- Crime is effect of anomie – the breakdown of social rules that regulate us. (though strain source of anomie) Anomie results from strain. Too many people can’t obtain their goals.
- Anomie generated by societies placing intense value on economic success – crime is big in America because of their big goal of materialism. The dominant value is money success and so many people do whatever they can to achieve that success.
- Anomie & deviance mutually reinforcing → enlarges crime problem until norms fail. The growth of anomie in society leads to more crime and more crime leads to more anomie.
Policy implications
For Merton (1938, 1968) denial of opportunity generates criminogenic strains. The way to solve crime to expand opportunities for the people – especially for the disadvantaged. More equality of opportunity in society.
So solutions to crime problem include:
- Education support programmes (e. President Johnson’s ‘War on Poverty’ & ‘Operation Headstart’)
- Job training schemes
- Affirmative action (positive discrimination)
Merton Theory - Lecture 7
Module: Criminological Theory (m900)
University: University of the West of England
