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Pdhpe YR 11 Notes
Basic Biology (BIOL 111)
Campbell University
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1. SKELETAL SYSTEM:
- There are 206 bones in the human skeleton.
- Axial skeleton- skull, vertebrae, ribs & sternum
- Vertebral column protects spinal cord and consists of 24 movable vertebrae ❖ 7 cervical bones ❖ 12 thoracic bones ❖ 5 lumbar bones ❖ 5 fused bones in the sacrum & 4 fused bones in coccyx
- Appendicular skeleton: includes bones of the pectoral (shoulder) arms and lower body legs.
TYPES OF BONES:
Type of bone example Major function LONG BONE (it is longer than it is wide)
Femur phalange Fibula numerus Ulna metacarpal
Support weight and facilitate movement SHORT BONE Carpals Tarsals
Provides stability and some movement. Transfers forces FLAT BONE Sternum Scapula ribs
Protect internal vital organs
IRREGULAR BONE Sacrum vertebrae
Protects vital organs Unique movements SESSAMOID BONE patella Reducing pressure and friction Protects tendons SUTURAL BONE Sutural lines of skull Help protect skull
- LIGAMNETS: dense connective tissue that attaches bone to bone
- TENDONS: tissues that attach bone to muscle
- CARTILAGE: flexible connective tissue that allows bones to move freely
- SYNOVIAL FLUID: acts as a lubricant that keeps joint and moving surfaces apart
- JOINT: when two or more bones meet together (articulation)
FUCNTIONS:
- Protects vital internal organs
- Creates bone marrow and blood
- Stores and releases mineral (calcium and phosphate)and fat
- Supports the body
- Provide efficient mobility and movement
- Storage of energy (lipids)
- ANATOMICAL TERMS:
- Superior: towards head
- Inferior: towards feet
- Anterior: towards front of the body
- Posterior: towards back of the body
- Medial: towards midline of the body (AXIAL)
- Lateral: towards side of the body (AXIAL)
- Proximal: towards body’s mass (APPENDICAULAR)
- Distal: away from body’s mass. (APPENDICULAR)
Join type description examples
Fibrous or immovable joints Fibrous membranes hold the bones tightly together and all movement is restricted
Bones of cranium
Cartilaginous joints (slightly movable)
Limited range of movement is enabled
Vertebral column
Freely movable or synovial joints A joint that allows maximum or easy movement
Elbow, Hip joint Shoulder
2. MUSCUALR SYSTEM:
• FUNCTIONS:
- Body has about 600 muscles that convert chemical energy into mechanical energy to help us move and create force.
- Generate heat
- Stabilize joints and posture
AGONIST (PRIME MOVER): - The muscle that causes the major action. For example tin a bicep curl (flexion) the biceps brachii is the agonists because It causes the muscle to contract.
ANTAGONIST: - This muscle relaxes and lengthen the muscles back into original position. Works as a pair with the agonist and helps control the action. For example in a bicep curl, the triceps brachii is the agonist because it relaxes.
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS:
When muscles are in a relaxed state, they are soft and loose. When they contract, to produce a force, they become hard and elastic.
ISOMETRIC: muscle develops tension but it neither shortens or lengthens. (EG plank or wall sit)
ISOTONIC: the muscle fibres develop tension of force as they lift the load through the range of movement. (CONCENTRIC & ECCENTRIC)
Concentric: causes muscles to shorten when it contracts (EG bicep curl)
Eccentric: causes muscles to lengthen when it contracts (EG lowering weight in bicep curl)
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and allow voluntary movement of the body.
Smooth muscles, which generate involuntary movement, form part of the walls of the oesophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, and blood vessels, among other portions of the body.
Cardiac muscle is involuntary and found only in the heart.
The trachea is the main air pipe that brings air down to the lungs. The trachea then spits into two (2) main bronchi or bronchus, which continue to branch down to bronchioles. These bronchioles then bring the air to the alveoli which have a very large porous surface (it has pores or holes in it for the exchange of gas), which are lined with fluid.
Each alveoli is surrounded by a mesh of capillaries to allow for gas exchange into the circulatory system.
The diaphragm is a strong wall of muscle that separates the thorax from the abdomen.
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
Inspiration is air movement from the atmosphere into the lungs (breathing in)
Intercostal muscles contract. Pulling the rib cage up and out
The diaphragm muscle contracts, pulling the diaphragm down, making it flatten.
The thorax increases and the lungs expand as they are drawn outwards
Air pressure in the lungs decreases as the area inside the lungs increases , therefore air is sucked in.
Diaphragm contracts (becomes flat)
Expiration is air movement from the lungs to the atmosphere (breathing out)
Intercostal muscles relax and the rib cage moves down and in.
The diaphragm muscle relaxes , resulting in the diaphragm becoming dome shaped.
The thorax decreases and the lungs recoil as they are elastic.
Air pressure in the lungs increases as the area inside the lungs decreases , therefore air moves out.
Diaphragm relaxes (becoming dome-shaped)
4. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
The circulatory system is a network consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the heart. This network supplies tissues in the body with oxygen and other nutrients, transports hormones, and removes unnecessary waste products.
Blood constitutes to approx. 7% of body weight.
Adult males have blood volume of approx. 5-6 litres.
Adult females have approx. 4.5-5 litres.
FUNCTIONS:
Transportation of carbon dioxide, wastes, nutrients, hormones, enzymes to and from body cells
Regulation of homeostasis , which helps maintain body temperature, regulating fluid levels in cells, fighting infection and protecting body from blood loss. Blood vessel structure function
Arteries - Thick, elastic wall, - Arteries branch into arterioles which divide into capillaries
- Carries blood away from the heart
Veins - Thin, less elastic wall, -
Returns deoxygenated blood from body tissues back into the right atrium Capillaries - Very thin wall
Smallest blood vessel
Transfers nutrients, oxygen and hormones from bloodstreams to body tissues.
- PULMONARY CIRCULATION: (RIGHT SIDE OF HEART)
Involves blood low in oxygen being received into the right atrium from the body. The blood is then being passed into the right ventricle and from here it is pumped into the lungs.
- SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION: (LEFT SIDE OF HEART)
Involves blood high in oxygen being received by the left atrium from the lungs. The blood is then passed into the left ventricle and from here it is then pumped to the body.
Diffusion is the process of a substance moving from a high concentration to a low concentration until the system is in equilibrium. Oxygen has a higher concentration in the alveoli than the blood , so oxygen diffuses into the capillaries and is carried to the body to make energy.
- Blood pressure: amount of pressure exerted on an artery wall during contraction and relaxation of heart.
- Hypertension: very high blood pressure
- Systolic pressure: measure of pressure exerted on the artery wall during contraction of left ventricle
- Diastolic pressure: measure of pressure extorted on the artery wall during relaxation of the left ventricle.
Blood pressure is measured with a stethoscope and a sphygmomanometer. HEALTHY BP- 120 / 80
LOW BP HEALTHY RANGE BP HIGH BP HYPERTENSION
LESS THAN 110 LESS THAN 70
110-
70-
130-
90-
OVER 160
OVER 95
- Diastole- heart relaxes
- Systole- heart contracts
HOW DO THE MUSCULOSKELETAL AND CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTESM OF THE BODY INFLUENCE AND RESPOND TO MOVEMENT?
Each system contributes a unique function and provides requirements that together enable to the body to create movement. The musculoskeletal system provides the sufficient mobility and movement required to move and the cardiorespiratory provides adequate oxygen and energy to ensure that the human is safe and healthy in doing so. The bones and muscles protect vital organs such as the heart and lungs while they follow the continuous process of respiration and transporting blood and oxygen to the
body.
PRELIMINARY CORE 1: BETTER HEALTH FOR INDIVIDUALS
1. WHAT DOES HEALTH MEAN TO INDIVIDUALS:
Meanings of health:
Definitions of health:
In 1947 World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as : <the state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity=
The holistic view of health which comprises various dimensions including physical, mental, emotional, spiritual and social.
Early meanings of health→ absence of illness, disease or injury → beliefs that medicine, drugs and doctors could return you to a healthy state
● Dimensions of Health:
PHYSICAL
- The efficient functioning of the body organs
- Absence of injury & illness
- Nutritional status
- Level of fitness & energy levels
- Size & weight - mobility
SOCIAL
- Ability to interact & cooperate with people
- Sense of connection
- Interdependent/ companionship with family & friends
MENTAL & EMOTIONAL
- Self-confidence, positive self-esteem
- Sense of connection and belonging
- Adaptation and decision-making skills
- Emotions and feelings
SPIRITUAL
Sense of connection with others & society
Sense of purpose, meaning or value in life
Can involve religion (buddha, god)
Attitudes about health conveyed by family, peers & media
Beliefs about our capacity to achieve good health
The value we place on the importance of being healthy
CHANGES IN THE MEANING OF HEALTH DURING OUR LIFE CYCLE:
PERIOD OF LIFE SPAN WHAT HEALTH MEANS TO US
Childhood (from birth to 11 years)
- Generally, take health for granted
Early adolescence (12 to 16 years)
Health is seen as important to help establish and maintain a positive body image
Health behaviours and values being formed and taught at school → expand knowledge Late adolescence (17 to 24 years)
More likely to engage in risk-taking with drugs, alcohol
Specific health concerns related to nutrition, drug use, injury, sexual health and mental health may arise.
The majority enjoy good health and are physically and sexually active. Early adulthood (25-39 years old)
Realise the value of having all dimensions of heath in balance in order to function effectively especially for the future, Middle years of adulthood (40-59 years)
As people age the idea of checking for health issues/disease becomes important
Ensure they eat a healthy and balanced diet with adequate exercise Senior years (from 60 years and over)
Good health is seen as a precious resource
More likely to suffer from failing health due to aging process.
Perceptions of health as social constructs:
- A social construct is a concept that recognises that people have different views based on their social circumstances and ways of seeing, interpreting, interrelating and interacting with their environment.
- Social constructs are the circumstances on which we make perceptions of other people's health.
- Eg we perceive the health of a nurse to be optimal because we assume they are highly knowledgeable and have experience through their patients → this is based on their socioeconomic status and level of education
- EG- a refugee from a third world country may not know about the protective behaviours and technology used to identify harmful diseases such as breast cancer. → based on cultural background, geographic location, socioeconomic status and level of education.
● Impact of the media, peers, family:
→ media : social media, television and technology have a major impact on the perceptions of the health of young people. Also raises awareness and severity of health issues. It urges them to act a certain way or dress a certain way to fit societal norms.
2. WHAT INFLUENCES THE HEALTH OF INDIVIDUALS?
Determinants of health → factors that influence and determine the level of health that people experience.
- Individual factors → knowledge & skills, attitudes, genetics
- Sociocultural factors → family, peers, media, religion, culture
- Socioeconomic → employment, education, income
- Environmental factors → geographical location, access to health services and technology.
● Knowledge & skills: knowledge about protective and risk behaviours and healthy behaviours and products that will impact our opinions ● Attitudes: good attitudes show attributes such as resilience, determination and high levels of self-belief and restraint. ● Genetics: characteristics/features → hereditary features that are genetically passed within family eg; diabetes, chronic cardiovascular diseases
● Family: responsible for housing/ clothing and teaching us values from a young age. Provide medical requirements and emotional support of love and care. ● Peers : heavily influence both positively and negatively. May force each other to behave or engage in risky behaviours. ● Media : advertising/promoting safe healthy products through social media television. Coverage of health issues ● Religion : beliefs relating to food, sexual activity, drugs can affect lifestyle choices. Ie some religions do not allow sexual activity before marriage. ● Culture : the values, traditions, gender roles, and knowledge shared among different cultures.
● Employment: supplies you with financial stability, status and financial security → jobs involving manual labour such as tradies have higher rates of injury and death.
● Education : a person's level of education has a significant impact on their health. Allows people to expand their knowledge about health issues and about risk and protective behaviours HEALTH LITERACY ● Income : those who have higher income have more money available to spend on health related products and services such as medications, insurance, food, recreational etc.
● Geographical location: people living in rural/remote areas have higher death rates, smoking and drinking induced. They are further away from health services and have to travel long distances to access hospitals. ● Access to health services & technology: some services are not made available to certain groups who do not know about technology. → eg young women do not have access to breast screening services
THE DEGREE OF CONTROL INDIVIDUALS CAN EXERT OVER THEIR HEALTH:
- Modifiable health determinants: can be changed or controlled so that they have a different level of influence on our health. Eg → can change EMPLOYMENT, EDUCATION, ATTITUDES
Control over health increases when we believe that we can: HEALTH LITERACY → acquire information, → make choices, → manage a situation that may be threatening → use the skills we possess
- Non- modifiable determinants: are those determinants that cannot be changed or altered. EG GENETICS, HEREDITARY, SOME ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS → POLLUTION, WEATHER
Determinants constantly influence the different stages of a person's life span.
- HEALTH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT:
The social construct of health recognises that people have different views of health based on their social circumstances and ways of seeing, interpreting, interrelating and interacting with their environment.
skills, attitudes to health. EG→ ACCURATELY IDENTIFY THE PRIORITIES AND VALUES OF THE COMMUNITY, WORK PROACTIVELY TO ENCOURAGE AND PROMOTE COMMUNITY ACTION.
NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS → NGOs are non profitable organizations that operate at local, international, or international levels. They are funded from fundraisers and aim to raise awareness for a certain foundation ie the heart foundation, cancer council, asthma foundation EG→ INITIATING AND SUPPORTING COMMUNITY ACTION TO RAISE AWARENESS AND PROMOTE INVOLVEMENT BY THE PUBLIC.
GOVERNMENT → all levels of government share a degree of responsibility for promoting better health within their community. Federal, state, local responsible for the health promotion of their own levels. EG → STRENGTHENING A NATIONAL MOVE TOWARDS PREVENTIVE HEALTH ACTIONS AND ATTITUDES, DELIVERY OF PRIMARY HEALTH SERVICES THROUGH HOSPITALS & CLINICS
5. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS→ provide leadership on worldwide health issues and establishes partnerships with all countries to provide fundamental needs to those in poverty. EG→ MONITORING AND ASSESSING GLOBAL HEALTH TRENDS, PROVIDING LEADERSHIP ON GLOBAL HEALTH MATTERS.
HEALTH PROMOTION APPROACHES & STRATEGIES
Traditional approaches to health promotion have tended to focus on specific diseases, illnesses and injury prevention and have centred on medical inter- vention to cure or prevent ill health. Contemporary approaches to health pro- motion now acknowledge the significant role played by underlying social, environmental and economic determinants such as employment, income, level of education, geographic location and cultural beliefs in the level of health achieved by individuals or population groups.
1. LIFESTYLE/BEHAVIOURAL APPROACHES → aims to reduce and prevent the incidence of risk behavior that contribute to poor health --> health promotion programs directly individuals to change their bad lifestyle behaviours
EG QUIT SMOKING CAMPAIGNS, REACH OUT CAMPAIGN → TARGETS THOSE WITH MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES.
2. PREVENTATIVE MEDICAL APPROACHES → are those that use medical treatments or interventions to promote health. More traditional approach with the aid of doctors and nurses
EG VACCINES FOR POLIO, HPV, PAP SMEAR FOR WOMEN
3. PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACHES → involves establishing programmes, policies and services that create safe environments
EG PROMOTING PUBLIC HEALTH PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS & WORK PLACES, HEALTHY CANTEEN
The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion is a document that represents a global approach to health promotion by the World Health Organization. It aims to enable people to increase control over their health. It outlines prerequisites for health and essential actions for health promotion.
1. DEVELOPING PERSONAL SKILLS → aims to educate and provide health information and skills to individual
2. CREATING SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENTS → means making the places where people live and work (school and workplaces) safe and take care of environment EG SCHOOL ZONES
3. STRENGTHENING COMMUNITY ACTION → empowering communities to solve their health issues EG ABORIGINAL TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER GROUPS
4. REORIENTING HEALTH SERVICES → means moving away from the clinical and curative approach to a more preventative approach EG MEDICARE, JUMP ROPE FOR HEART FOUNDATION, RESEARCH ON HIV/AIDS
5. BUILDING HEALTH PUBLIC POLICY → ensuring that decisions at all levels of government and organizations are made so that they work towards health improvement. LAWS AND REGULATIONS, BLOOD DONATIONS
Principles of social justice Equity- ∑ Access to health care services and information must be fairly distributed.
Pdhpe YR 11 Notes
Course: Basic Biology (BIOL 111)
University: Campbell University
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