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EXAM 4 (ch 12-15) study guide
Fundamentals (NUR155)
Galen College of Nursing
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BSC 2085 Final Exam study guide (Chapters 1 2 - 15) Chapter 12 (Central Nervous System)
- What is the name of the structure that the spinal cord and the brain begins as? Name the three primary brain vesicles and the contents contained within each vesicle. Name the products of neural tube development. That does the neural tube divide into by week 4?
- Name the meninges from most superficial to deepest. Which area contains cerebrospinal fluid? What procedure retrieves CSF from the area surrounding the spinal cord? What is the name of the space outside of the dura mater that contains fat that cushions the spinal cord? What is the blood-brain barrier and what is its main function?
- Be able to locate the lobes of the cerebrum and the divisions between each. Be able to describe the location of the longitudinal fissure, transverse fissure, central sulcus, and lateral sulcus. o Fissures are deep depressions in the brain and sulci are shallow depressions between lobes of the brain. o Gyri are elevated ridges (bumps) of the cerebral cortex. ▪ Sulci and gyri triple the surface area of the cerebral cortex.
- Name the ventricles of the brain. Which ventricle is found in the diencephalon? What is the name of the membrane that separates the lateral ventricle? What is contained within the ventricles? What is the name of the structure that connects the third and fourth ventricle? Where is the central canal and what does it contain? Trace the production of the CSF in the choroid plexus and its flow of CSF through the ventricles, into the subarachnoid space and then returning into the venous blood via the arachnoid villi.
- Name the major regions of the brain (HINT: be sure to study the tables that contain the names of the major regions of the brain and their main functions). What is contained within the diencephalon? What is contained within the brain stem and what is its function of each part? What part of the brain stem blends into the spinal cord?
- What is the function of the cerebrum? Know the 5 lobes of the brain and their main functions. Below are listed the lobes of the brain and their functions: o Frontal – most anterior lobe of the cerebrum, location of primary motor cortex (conscious movements of the body), premotor area, Broca’s area, location of intelligence, abstract reasoning o Parietal – primary somatosensory cortex, somatic association area o Occipital – most posterior lobe of the cerebrum, responsible for conscious perception of vision, visual association area o Temporal – lateral lobe of the cerebrum, primary auditory cortex
o Insula – located deep to the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes; gustatory (taste) area
- What is the cerebral cortex and its main function? Where is the precentral gyrus located and what is its function? Where is the postcentral gyrus located and what is its function? What part of the brain is responsible for the muscles of speech?
- What main parts of neurons are found in gray matter? What main parts of neurons are found in white matter? Where is gray matter found in the brain? Where is white matter found in the brain? Where is gray matter found in the spinal cord? Where is white matter found in the spinal cord?
- What are the main functions of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus? Which of these 3 parts is attached to and controls the pituitary gland?
- The limbic system is the emotional region of the brain. What are the main parts of the limbic system? What is the purpose of the reticular activating system?
- Know the brain waves and the function of each brain wave. Which brain waves appear during sleep? Which waves appears during that periods of high sensory input and high mental alertness? Which waves are more prominent during relaxed wakefulness? What measures brain waves?
- Be able to recognize the stages of sleep and the differences between REM sleep and non REM sleep. What waves are seen during different stages of sleep? Name the benefits of sleep.
- What is hemispheric lateralization?
- What is decussation and where does it occur in the brain?
- What part of the brain produces melatonin and helps regulate sleep wake cycle and mood?
- What part of the brain is responsible for cardiovascular and respiratory functions?
- Where are the superior and inferior colliculi and what are their functions?
- Where is the cerebellum and what is its function? What is the name of the cerebellar white matter?
- Know the definition and the purpose of basal nuclei. What are the functions of the substantia nigra and the red nuclei? What is the function of the suprachiasmatic nucleus?
- What does the mammillary body do?
- The three type of nerve fiber tracts are the association tracts, commissure tracts and projection tracts. Know the function of each of these nerve fiber tracts.
- Describe the spinal cord anatomy and functions. What is the name for the butterfly shaped area of the spinal cord? What is the name for the region of the spinal cord surrounding the butterfly shaped area and what is the purpose of this area?
- What are the superior and inferior bone markings of the spinal cord? What structure anchors the spinal cord laterally to the vertebrae? Know the descriptions of the conus medullaris, filum terminale, denticulate ligaments, and cauda equina.
o Chemoreceptors – sensory receptors located in blood vessels and visceral organs, and their signals are not usually consciously perceived o Exteroreceptors – sensory receptors located on the skin o Interoreceptors – receptors deep to surface of the body (may be located in the skin, muscles, and visceral organs) o Photoreceptors – specialized receptors responsive to light energy
Know the general organization of somatosensory system (perceptual level, circuit level, receptor level and what is included in each level) including the following: o Perceptual level (3rd order neuron) – somatosensory cortex o Circuit level (2nd order neuron) – begins in the spinal cord, medulla, pons, or reticular formation and terminates in the thalamus or cerebellum o Receptor level (1st order neuron) – begins at a sensory receptor and terminates at the spinal cord
What is the adaption of sensory receptors? Do pain receptors adapt? Do smell receptors adapt quickly?
What is referred pain?
What is the name of the area of the skin that provides sensory input to the CNS via a spinal nerve?
What are the names of the connective tissue coverings that make up a peripheral nerve? Which connective tissue layer directly encloses the axon? What connective tissue layer covers bundles of nerve fibers?
Remember that most nerves are mixed which mean that they contain sensory and motor components. Sensory nerves travel toward the CNS and enter into the back of the spinal cord (through the dorsal root ganglion and into the dorsal horn). Motor nerves travel out of the spinal cord and towards the muscle (they enter the ventral horn of the spinal cord).
What nerves enter and exit from the cervical and lumbar enlargements? Be able to name the 4 nerve plexuses, the main nerves out of these plexuses and the purpose of each nerve. How many nerves exit from each area of the spinal cord?
Know the names of the 12 cranial nerves, their names and which ones are mixed, only sensory or only motor.
Be aware of the homeostatic imbalances associated with cranial nerve injury like: anosmia (I), anopsia (II), external strabismus (III) and pupils constrict (parasympathetic effect), double vision (IV), tic douloureux (V), internal strabismus (VI), Bell’s Palsy (VII), nerve deafness (VIII), impaired swallowing and taste (IX), impaired swallowing and digestion (X), paralysis of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius (XI), difficulty in speech and swallowing (XII)
Know the functions of the cranial nerves as well as which ones are parasympathetic (III, VII, IX, X).
Know the 4 main plexuses and some of the main spinal nerves coming out of those plexuses (an interlacing network of nerves). Examples of important nerves to know are: o Ulnar nerve – originates from the brachial plexus and runs through the “funny bone” o Sciatic nerve – originates from the sacral plexus, runs down the posterior leg and is the longest nerve in the human body
Describe homeostatic imbalances associated with some of these main spinal nerve (e. carpal tunnel syndrome, sciatica)
Which cranial nerves are associated with the forebrain? Which cranial nerves come off of the midbrain? Which cranial nerves come off of the pons? Which cranial nerves come off of the medulla oblongata?
Know the hierarchy of motor control and what regions of the peripheral nervous system fit into the three levels including the following: o Highest level: Precommand (or planning) level – cerebellum and basal nuclei o Middle level: Projection level – motor cortex, corticospinal tracts (includes descending tracts) o Lowest level: Segmental (or spinal) level – spinal cord and central pattern generators
What are the basic components of the reflex arc? What are the functions of each of the components of the reflex arc?
Innate reflexes are rapid, repeatable, motor responses to stimuli that we are born with.
Patellar reflex is an example of a stretch reflex. The tendon reflex is the opposite of the stretch reflex, but can work with the stretch reflex.
What is the purpose of the muscle spindle?
Be able to describe the flexor reflex and be able to recognize examples of this reflex. Describe the crossed extensor reflex.
What is an ipsilateral reflex and what is a contralateral reflex?
What is the area of skin called that provides sensory input to the CNS via a spinal nerve called? Chapter 14 – Autonomic Nervous System
What is the function of the autonomic nervous system? What is the main part of the brain that controls the autonomic nervous system? What is the main part of the brain that directly controls heart rate, blood pressure and respiration?
Be able to compare and contrast the following differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems (compare and contrast the effectors, efferent pathways and ganglia in each type of nervous system)
o The iris regulates the amount of light entering through the pupil ▪ Pupil is an opening in the iris controlled by involuntary muscles of the iris - the iris acts as a diaphragm that opens and closes like the shutter of a camera o Ciliary muscles are attached to the lens and are responsible for altering the shape of the lens so that light is bent towards the retina for image formation o The ciliary process makes the aqueous humor
- Name the layers (tunics) of the eye and be able to put these layers of the eye in order. Which layer of the eye is vascular layer? Which layer is the outermost tough layer? Which layer is the neural layer of the eye? Where is the optic disc and why is it referred to as the blind spot of the eye? o The optic nerve (cranial nerve II begins right at the optic disc)
- Where is the macula lutea and the fovea centralis (or central fovea)? o Know which of these two areas has the greatest visual acuity and be able to explain the difference between the two areas.
- Photoreceptors consist of the cones are rods located in the retina. o Visual transduction begins when photopigments are absorbed at the retina o Bipolar cells (remember, these neurons are only in the special senses) receive local signals from photoreceptors and transmit them to the ganglion cells
- Be able to name the different anatomical landmarks of the eye. For example, what are the names for medial and lateral angles of the eye?
- What part of the eye contains sebaceous and sweat glands? What is the function of the conjunctiva? What is the name of the gland that produces tears?
- Name the extrinsic eye muscles that move the eye and the cranial nerves that control these muscles.
- What is the order in which light passes through the eye? Where does the vision signal decussate (cross-over) to the other side of the brain? Where is the primary visual cortex located? What part of the brain interprets visual form, color, depth and motion?
- Name the structures of the eye that the tears pass through as the tears leave the lacrimal gland and then eventually end up exiting through the nasal cavity. Where is the lacrimal gland located?
- When axons of the ganglion cells from the retina leave the eye, what nerve do they form?
- Which structure allows light to pass through?
- What is the technical term for the bending of light? What two structures of the eye are responsible for bending of the light?
- What are the names of the layers of proteins found in the lens? What is the purpose of the lens? o Retinal is the molecule in the retina that absorbs light.
o The photopigment of rods is called rhodopsin. Bleaching of these photopigments occurs using the light phase. o Opsin is a protein that binds and releases from retinal due to light.
Where is the anterior cavity of the eye and what does it contain? Where is the posterior cavity of the eye and what does it contain? Which cavity contains the aqueous humor and which cavity contains the vitreous humor? o The aqueous humor contains a venous sinus called the Canal of Schlemm – what is its purpose? How can this relate to glaucoma?
What receptor is used for detecting color? What receptor is used for dark vision? Which receptor functions best in low light? Which receptor functions best in high light? o The visible light spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see – it contains three main cones that are responsive to specific wavelengths and reflect specific colors red (560 nm, green (530 nm) and blue (500 nm). ▪ Therefore, our cone photoreceptors have the ability to absorb these three main colors and other colors are various blends of these wavelengths. ▪ If all three cones (red, green and blue are equally stimulated then the eye sees white.
What is the difference between binocular and monocular vision? Which provides for greater depth perception?
As we age, the lens of our eyes becomes less elastic – this means that we often need corrective eyewear in order to read something that we could read when we were younger. Know the names of these disorders and the type of corrective lens that must be used: o Myopia is referred to as nearsightedness and a concave lens must be used so the light is refracted outward so that it hits the fovea at the precise place to forma a clear image. o Hyperopia is referred to as farsightedness and a convex lens must be used so the light is refracted inward so that it hits the fovea at the precise place to form a clear image. o Presbyopia is commonly referred to as “old eyes” and is the inability of the lens to accommodate to focus on an image.
Smell accounts for 80% of the taste we are sensing so this explains why we have a very small appetite when we can’t smell very well.
What are the names of the smell receptors in the roof of the nasal cavity where transduction of the odorant molecule occurs? What are the names of the cells that secrete mucous and are detected by olfactory receptor cells? What is the pathway of the olfactory tract? Be able to name the parts of the brain that the olfactory tract goes through as it eventually makes its way to the primary olfactory cortex.
Know the homeostatic imbalances of the special senses including: glaucoma, cataracts, color blindness, myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism, conduction deafness, vertigo, sensorineural deafness, dizziness, motion sickness, night blindness
EXAM 4 (ch 12-15) study guide
Course: Fundamentals (NUR155)
University: Galen College of Nursing
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