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Anatomy & Physiology (BIOL 2113)
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Study Guide
Unit 1
Q. Identify anatomy, physiology, and the principle of complementarity of structure
and function.
A. Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body. Physiology is the study of how
those structures function. The overarching concept behind physiology is the principle of
complementarity of structure and function. This means that function follows form...
what a structure does depends on its design.
Q. List and describe the levels of organization of living things.
A. Chemical Atoms
Cellular Organelles & cells
Tissues Groups of cells working together
Organ Various tissues working together
Organ System Organs working together
Organism All the organ systems working together
Q. List and describe eight characteristics (necessary life functions) of all living
things.
A. In order to maintain life, an organism must (1) maintain boundaries between itself
and the outside environment; (2) be capable of movement, which can be both internal
and external; (3) utilize responsiveness, which is the sensing of and response to changes
in the environment. This stimuli can be internal such as having a thought, or external
such as feeling the cold air on your skin; (4) utilize digestion, the breakdown of complex
foodstuffs into the smallest building block molecules; (5) have a metabolism, which
encompasses all the chemical proceses in the body. Catabolism is the breakdown of
complex molecules into smaller particles.. is the synthesis of larger molecules
from its smaller components; (6) be capable of excretion, the removal of wastes from the
body. Defecation eliminates unabsorbed food and urination voids metabolic wastes.
Another form of excretion is expiration, which rids the body of carbon dioxide via
exhalation; (7) be capable of reproduction at both the cellular and organismal level; and
(8) be capable of growth, which is usually an increase in the number of cells, though the
sizes of cells does increase slightly. Growth occurs when anabolic processes dominate
over catabolic processes.
Q. Identify the five items all living things need to survive.
A. Nutrients, oxygen, water, appropriate temperature and appropriate pressure
Q. Define homeostasis, and identify three components of any homeostatic mechanism.
A. Homeostasis is defined as the ability of the body to maintain a stable set of internal
conditions, such as temperature. It is also referred to as “dynamic equilibrium” because it
doesn’t adhere to a strict notion of “normal”, but instead keeps the body always moving
toward normal, within a very close range. For instance, the body’s temperature is not
always 98, but fluctuates a bit in either direction. The componenets of homeostasis are
(1) the receptor, which provides the data; (2) the control center, which decides what to
do with the receptor’s information; and (3) the effector which carries out the control
center’s plan (it alters the organism’s function).
Q. Describe negative and positive feedback loops, how the body utilizes them, and the
type of loop that is more common.
A. In negative feedback the effector’s response negates the movement of the original
stimulus. Negative feedback is utilized to return the organism to equilibrium and is the
most common type of feedback. (example is temperature).
In positive feedback the effector’s response enhances the original stimulus, so the
organism is temporarily moved further away from equilibrium. It initiates a set of self-
perpetuating events and also includes an event to break the cycle. (examples are blood-
clotting and childbirth)
Q. Describe anatomical position
A. Anatomical position is where the body is standing face forward, feet parallel and
about hip-distance apart, and arms at sides with palms facing forward.
Q. Identify the terms commonly used to describe directions and relative body part
locations, body planes and sections, and body regions
A. Superior = Above Anterior = Front
Inferior = Below Posterior = Back
Medial = Toward midline Superficial = Toward surface
Lateral = Toward side Deep = Away from surface
Q. Identify the four classes of biological molecules, including the monomers of each
class, and how each class is commonly used by the body.
A. The four classes of biological molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids.
MOLECULE MONOMER HOW USED
carbohydrates monosaccharides primary function is energy
lipids glycerol + 3 fatty acids energy, structure of cells
insulation, metabolic activity
proteins amino acids ---globular proteins---
cell membrane transport
immunity (antibodies)
blood-borne carriers
cell identification/recognition
catalysis & hormones
---fibrous proteins---
cell structure & support
nucleic acids nucleotides makes new proteins
contains genetic information
Q. Identify the structural levels of protein, and the types of chemical bonds that
maintain each level.
A. Primary structure is simply amino acids strung together. It is held together by
peptide bonds. Secondary structure is the 3-D arrangement of the primary structure. The
alpha helix is a coiled structure held together by hydrogen bonds. The beta pleated sheet
is where the chains hydrogen bond to themselves and others. Tertiary structure is the
unique 3-D folding of the secondary structure. Tertiary is held together by hydrogen
bonds, disfulfide bonds, ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions. The quarternary
structure is an aggregation and interaction of several structures. Hydrophobic
interactions hold this structure together.
Q. Define denaturation, and the conditions that result.
A. Denaturation is when proteins lose their shape and can no longer function. It happens
when the active site of the enzyme changes shape and the enzyme no longer fits..
there is a loss of enzyme activity. Denaturation occurs when the hydrogen bonds and
ionic bonds that maintain the protein’s structure are affected by temperature or pH. When
denatured, proteins lose their solubility and biological processes (such as enzyme
activity) are impaired.
Q. List and describe passive and active methods of cell membrane transport utilized by
the cell, and the types of molecules/materials upon which each method operates.
A. Passive processes are those which do not require the input of energy. The three types
of passive processes are diffusion (both simple and facilitated), osmosis and filtration.
In diffusion the molecules of a solute distribute evenly throughout the solution. The
solutes move down the concentration gradient from area of highest concentration to the
lowest concentration. This movement occurs until equilibrium is reached and the gradient
no longer exists. The speed with which this occurs depends upon temperature, the size of
the molecules and the steepness of the gradient.
In simple diffusion the solute moves directly across the phospholipid
membrane. For simple diffusion to occur, the solute must be lipid-soluble
and non-polar.
In facilitated diffusion, the solute moves through a carrier or channel
protein. This process is for polar and or larger molecules. There is a
maximum amount that can get across the membrane at any one time
because there are only so many proteins available.
Osmosis involves the solution (generally H 2 O) moving down its own concentration
gradient. This process comes into play when the membrane itself is impermeable to the
solute. Tonicity refers to the ability of a solution to change the H 2 O volume of a cell
through osmosis.
Isotonic solutions = The same concentration of solutes
Hypertonic sln = Has a higher concentration than the other
solution. Will draw water towards itself to dilute itself. The
compartment holding the solution will expand, while the
cell shrinks (cucumbers turning into pickles)
Hypotonic sln = Has a lower concentration than the other
solution. Water will be drawn from it. The compartment
holding the solution will shrink and the cell will expand.
In filtration the driving force is the hydrostatic pressure gradient. The
membrane selectively filters depending on the solute size (think of a
coffee filter). This process occurs in capillaries and kidney tubules.
The active processes are active transport (primary and secondary) and
vesicular transport (exocytosis and endocytosis).
7
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Oxygen
CO 2
Fat-soluble vitamins
Alcohol
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
Glucose
Amino Acids
Ions
OSMOSIS
water
FILTRATION
not selective
ACTVE TRANSPORT
large, non-lipid soluble
water
EXOCYTOSIS
cell waste
mucous
hormones
fresh membrane mlc
Active transport is similar to facilitated diffusion in that it requires a carrier integral
protein. The difference is that it moves the solute up the concentration gradient by way
of a “pump.” Active transport uses ATP for energy. There are two tyopes—primary active
transport and secondary active transport. Primary active transport
involves the direct use of ATP to move the solute. The solute binds to a
protein and waits for the ATP to become available. The energy release
transforms the shape of the protein. Secondary active transport does not
use ATP directly. Instead, the active transport of one solute creates a
gradient that may be used to move a second solute. If the second solute
moves in the same direction as the first, it is called symport. If it moves in the opposite
direction, it is called antiport.
Vesicular transport involves the moving of large particles such as bacteria and proteins
across the membrane as well as for the bulk intake of fluid. If items are moving into the
cell it is called endocytosis. When items are moving out of the cell it is called exocytosis.
Endocytosis is either phagocytosis (cell eating), which is common among macrophages,
or pinocytosis (cell drinking), which is essential in absorptive cells. Exocytosis is used
for secretions such as mucus, hormones and cellular waste.. also for adding fresh
molecules to replenish the cell membrane.
Q. Define hydrophobic, hydrophilic, concentration gradient, osmosis, primary and
secondary active transport, symport and antiport.
A. Hydrophobic means “water fearing” and refers to molecules or portions of
molecules that interact only with nonpolar molecules. Hydrophilic means “water loving”
and refers to molecules or portions of molecules that interact with water and charged
particles.
Concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a particular substance
between two different areas.
Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent through a membrane from a dilute solution into a
more concentrated one.
Primary active transport is a type of active transport in which the energy needed to
drive the transport process is provided directly by hydrolysis of ATP.
Secondary active transport is a type of active transport in which ATP is not used
directly. The transport occurs because the primary active transport creates a gradient used
for secondary active transport.
ENDOCYTOSIS
food particles
bacteria
fluid
In late prophase the nuclear envelope braks down and the kinetochore microtubules
form. The spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the chromatid. The polar
microtubles cross link and as they do they lengthen and push the centrioles apart.
In metaphase the chromosomes align on the metaphase plate thanks to the push-pull of
the microtubules. The equal pull on the kinetochore microtubules aligns pairs of sister
chromatids.
In anaphase the sister chromatids separate. The centromere splits and kinetochore
microtubules continue to shorten, while the polar microtubules continue to lengthen and
push. The cell elongates.
In telophase the nuclear envelope reforms, the chromosome decondenses, the nucleoli
reappear and the mitotic spindle breaks down.
Q. Describe the general process of DNA replication, including the enzymes involved.
A. There are three stages to DNA replication
1. Uncoiling
2. Polymerization
3. Ligation
In uncoiling the DNA uncoils from the nucleosomes with the aid of DNA helicase,
which unzips the strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold them together. As
helicase moves along the strand it forms a replication bubble, and the strands meet at a
replication fork.
In polymerization a group of enzymes converge on a single DNA strand, forming a
replisome. One of these enzymes is primerase. Primerase creates an RNA primer, which
is temporary. Next, DNA polymerase III (the molecule which does the actual
polymerization) starts pulling in nucleotides and binding them to complementary
nucleotides, moving in a 5 to 3 direction only. (A with T, G with C).
In ligation, there is a leading strand and a lagging strand. The leading strand is created by
polymerase moving in the same direction as the helicase. It is formed continuously. The
lagging strand is create by polymerase moving in the opposite direction as the helicase.
It is formed in segments which are spliced together by DNA ligase.
Q. Describe the general process of protein synthesis.
A. There are three steps to protein synthesis: transcription, editing and translation.
Transcription is the process of making a copy of the DNA strand. In transcription, RNA
polymerase binds to and unwinds segments of the DNA strand (helicase is not needed). It
only replicates one strand of the DNA. As RNA polymerase moves along, it inserts and
polymerases complementary RNA bases (A with U, G with C). This short segment is
called mRNA.. is a complementary copy of the segment of DNA.
Editing involves cutting out the “nonsense” segments of mRNA called introns.
Spiceosomes excise introns and put the “good” pieces together. The rejoined are called
exons.
Translation is the process of translating the segment into the language of proteins.
Nucleic acids are the language of DNA/RNA and amino acids are the language of
proteins. Nucleic acids are composed of combinations of four “letters” that need to be
arranged in groups of three to code for the 20 amino acids, which are what build proteins.
The grouping of three nucleic acids is called a codon, and there are 64 possible codons.
The process of translation starts with the mRNA molecule leaving the nucleus via the
nuclear pores. It then binds to the large ribosomal subunit at a unique leader sequence of
bases. The tRNA is a clover-leaf shaped molecule with a stem region that binds to a
specific AA. The anticodon is the codon that is complementary to the code (AGG goes
with UCC).
Protein synthesis is initiated when an mRNA and the first tRNA molecule (carrying
methionine) come together. mRNA provides the template of instructions from the cellular
DNA for building a specific protein. tRNA brings the protein building blocks (amino
acids) to the ribosome where it binds to the large ribosomal subunit.
Once the ribosome has both subunits together, it starts scanning the mRNA for the start
codon (AUG/methionine). Next, the tRNA binds the correct amino acid in place. The
ribosome enzyme forms a peptide bond between the first two amino acids and the protein
has begun! The ribosome then shifts down along the mRNA, bringing the next codon into
the active site. The first tRNA leaves and the process repeats. It stops when it comes
across a stop codon on the mRNA (UAA, UAG, UGA). The protein then goes to the
Golgi apparatus for export, or it hangs out in the cytoplasm to do something for that
particular cell.
Q. Define cell differentiation, and tissue; and identify the four primary tissue types.
A. Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become progressively more
specialized. It is a normal process through which cells mature.
A. Epithelial tissues are classified by the number of cells layers and by the shape of the
cell. One cell layer is simple epithelia. Two or more cell layers are stratified epithelia.
The different shapes are squamous (flat cells), cuboidal (square-shaped), and columnar
(tall and thin).
Q. Define glands, and describe their classifications and possible modes of secretion.
A. Glands are outgrowths of epithelium that are specialized to secrete a particular
product. They are classified by the type of secretion, their cellularity, their structure and
their mode of secretion.
o Type of secretion
o Exocrine gland has a product secreted from the apical surface onto an
external surface or into an internal cavity.
o Endocrine gland secretes hormones into the extracellular space
surrounding the gland.
o Cellularity
o Unicellar glands are individual cells scattered among other epithelial
cells. These are goblet cells.. secrete mucus onto the surface.
o All others are multicellular
o Structure
o Simple ducts are one single duct
o Compound ducts are branched
o The secretory unit can be one of three varieties
▪ Tubular has long tubelike pouches
▪ Alveolar/Acinar has a rounded, sac-like region
▪ Tubuloalveolar has both types present
o Mode of secretion
o Merocrine method is the most common. The cell secretes by exocytosis.
Examples include the pancreas, sweat glands and salivary glands.
o Holocrine method involve the whole cell filling up with vesicles
containing the material. Once full, it ruptures and releases its product.
Example is the sebaceous gland.
o The apocrine method involves the apical portion of the cell filling with
vesicles. This portion pinches off and ruptures. (occurs in animals)
Q. Identify the characteristics of connective tissue and its general composition.
A. The characteristics of connective tissue are:
o Low cellularity
o Lots of space between cells
o Abundant non-living extracellular material
o Very diverse types that all derive from a common origin
o High variable vascularity
o No polarity of cells
Connective tissue is made up of cells and matrix
Q. Identify and describe the three major types of connective tissue, and the various
subclasses of each.
A. The three major types of connective tissue are connective tissue proper, supportive
connective tissue and fluid connective tissue.
o Connective Tissue Proper (supports and wraps)
o Loose Connective Tissue
▪ Areolar
▪ Adipose
▪ Reticular
o Dense Connective Tissue
▪ Dense Regular
▪ Dense Irregular
o Supportive Connective Tissue
o Cartilage
▪ Hyaline
▪ Elastic
▪ Fibrocartilage
o Bone
o Fluid Connective Tissue
o Blood
▪ Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
▪ Leukocytes (white blood cells)
▪ Platelets
Descriptions
Areolar connective tissue is the most generalized of all the CTs. It is found throughout
the body and is sort of cobweb-ish in appearance. It underlies most epithelia and has a lot
of ground substance (space between cells). Other characteristics and functions include:
o Fills space
o Binds tissues and organs together
o Holds fluids, immune cells and adipose
Adipose connective tissue is made up of abundant adipocytes that pack the tissue, with
little extracellular space. The cells contain lipid droplets that take up most of the cell,
Synovial membrane is located in the lining of joint cavities. It does not have an epithelial
component, but rather an incomplete layer of fibroblasts and macrophages. The CT
component is areolar CT.
Q. Identify the two major types of cells that make up neural tissue, and the general
function of each.
A. The two types of cells that make up neural tissue are the neuron and the glial cells
(aka neuroglia). Neurons generate and transmit electrical signals. The glial cells are non-
conducting support cells that insulate and protect neurons.
Q. Identify the general characteristics of muscle tissue, and distinguishing
characteristics of each of the three types of muscle.
A. Muscle tissue is highly cellular and vascularized. The cells contain dense bundles of
contractile proteins.
Skeletal Muscle is characterized by long cells that are cylindrical and multinucleate. The
tissue itself is striated. Skeletal muscle is voluntary!
Cardiac Muscle is characterized by short cells that branch. They are uninucleate and the
tissue is striated. The hallmark feature of cardiac cells are the intercolated discs. Cardiac
muscle is involuntary!
Smooth Muscle is characterized by spindle-shaped cells that are uninucleate. The nuclei
appear more oval than in dense CT. It is not striated. Smooth muscle is involuntary!
Q. Describe the stages of tissue repair, and the factors that impact the outcome.
A. There are three stages of tissue repair:
o Stage 1: Inflammation
o Stage 2: Organization
o Stage 3: Regeneration or Fibrosis
Inflammation occurs when tissue damage causes a release of chemicals, which signal
the immune cells to come to the rescue. The chemicals increase the diameter and
permeability of the capillaries so stuff (wbc, plasma and clotting proteins) can leak out
and enter the damaged tissue. These guys attack pathogens and seal off the area.
Macrophages clear away dead pathogens and cells.
Organization involves the formation of granulation tissue to replace the damaged tissue.
It is made up of new capillaries and fibroblasts. Fibroblasts secrete growth factors and lay
down collagen, which bridges gaps in damaged tissue (pulls wound edges together).
Regeneration is the re-growth of the original tissue in smaller wounds and in tissue that
is regenerative. Epithelia grow in over the fibrous connective tissue scar tissue.
If the wound is bigger or the tissue is not regenerative (ex. cardiac), then fibrosis occurs.
In fibrosis, the destroyed tissue is replaced by fibrous connective tissue scar tissue.
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Study Guide UNIT 1 copy - None
Course: Anatomy & Physiology (BIOL 2113)
87 Documents
Students shared 87 documents in this course
University: Gwinnett Technical College
Was this document helpful?
Study Guide
Unit 1
Q. Identify anatomy, physiology, and the principle of complementarity of structure
and function.
A. Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body. Physiology is the study of how
those structures function. The overarching concept behind physiology is the principle of
complementarity of structure and function. This means that function follows form…
what a structure does depends on its design.
Q. List and describe the levels of organization of living things.
A. Chemical Atoms
Cellular Organelles & cells
Tissues Groups of cells working together
Organ Various tissues working together
Organ System Organs working together
Organism All the organ systems working together
Q. List and describe eight characteristics (necessary life functions) of all living
things.
A. In order to maintain life, an organism must (1) maintain boundaries between itself
and the outside environment; (2) be capable of movement, which can be both internal
and external; (3) utilize responsiveness, which is the sensing of and response to changes
in the environment. This stimuli can be internal such as having a thought, or external
such as feeling the cold air on your skin; (4) utilize digestion, the breakdown of complex
foodstuffs into the smallest building block molecules; (5) have a metabolism, which
encompasses all the chemical proceses in the body. Catabolism is the breakdown of
complex molecules into smaller particles…anabolism is the synthesis of larger molecules
from its smaller components; (6) be capable of excretion, the removal of wastes from the
body. Defecation eliminates unabsorbed food and urination voids metabolic wastes.
Another form of excretion is expiration, which rids the body of carbon dioxide via
exhalation; (7) be capable of reproduction at both the cellular and organismal level; and
(8) be capable of growth, which is usually an increase in the number of cells, though the
sizes of cells does increase slightly. Growth occurs when anabolic processes dominate
over catabolic processes.
Q. Identify the five items all living things need to survive.
1
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