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Memory
Psychology (PSYC 101)
Queensborough Community College
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Memory
Overview:
####### In this module, you will learn about:
- Theories of memory
- Stages of memory
- Why we forget?
- Ways to improve our memory
- Describe the key processes of memory including encoding, storage, and retrieval and strategies to enhance these processes to reduce forgetting
Memory systems
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Memory : Active system that stores , organizes , alters, and recovers ( retries ) information Stages of Memory → Encoding: converting information into a useableform → storage: Holding information in memory for later use → Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage
- Memory is not a single ablitity , but rather a collection of several different systems that store information in different forms for differing amounts of time The Atkinson- Shiffrin Model → In the 1960 's , Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin developed a memory model with 3 systems of memory : sensory memory , short - term memory LSTM) , and long- term memory LLTM) . i) These three memory system also acts as stores
Long-Term memory (LTM)
Types of long-term memories
Limits of original STM model
Working memory (WM)
- stores information relatively permanently
- stored on basis of meaning and importance
- Memories are encoded on the basis of meaning
- Limitless capacity
- Long Duration ( Minutes , Hours, Years, lifetime)
skill memory
→ Procedural Memory : Long - term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills ( Ex : Driving)
Fast Memory
→Declarative memory : Part of LTM that contains factual information
- semantic memory : Impersonal facts and everyday knowledge (Ex: Albany is the capital of New York),subset of declarative memory
- Episodic memory : Has to do with something personal or specific to you . Also called autobiographical memory
- semantic memory : Impersonal facts and everyday knowledge (Ex: Albany is the capital of New York),subset of declarative memory
- Neglected active
processing ofinformation
- Active verus passive rehearsal
- Neglected visual memory
- original focus was on auditory information
- Neglected role of attention
- Proposed by Baddeley ( 1986 ) to address the limitations of the original STM model Three main components of WM →central executive →Phonological loop → Visuospatial sketch pad CVSSP )
- He later on expanded on this central Executive → controls activity of the articulatory loop and VSSP Phonological Loop → Tape recorder → Most similar to original concept of STM
The working memory model: An active STM system
Types of LTM
VSSP → Maintains mental images , location of objects , etc
- Later in 2002 another part of the system was added called the Episodic Buffer
- The Episodic buffer serves as an interface or a go between to go from the phonological loop to the visuospatial sketchpad
- Someone gives you their phone number, but you don't have a pen handly to write it down.
- Rehearsal : repeating information until you do not need to remember anymore
- Working memory : A model of short - term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information
declarative
NODE
curative
memories
memories
←
Unable
to ←
able to
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verb
alive to
verbalize
Herman Ebbinghaus
Serial position effect
Depth of processing
→ Ebbinghaus did some research on the serial position Effect, He had individual memorize nonsense syllables and words to see what words they remembered and what words they forgot → Learned list of nonsense syllables such as Cac , rit , and dax → Later recalled nonsense syllables to investigate forgetting →Found that syllables early and late in the list are most likely to be recalled Failed to
remember
the +
middle
####### Easy to remeberthing
from beginning and end Of the last
- The number of complexity of mental operations used when processing
- Shallow. based on characteristics of appearance
- Moderate : based on characteristics of the sound
- Deep : based on characteristics of meaning
- Example: A word is used as a stimulus in all 3 questions below, each of which requires a yes or no response . The difference is in the type of processing required to answer the questions
- Stimulus: GAIN Depth of processing questions → shallow: Is this word printed in capital letters? -7 Moderate : Does this word rhyme with '' train"? -7 Deep: Does this word fit in the following sentence ?
- I have nothing to by helping you .
Transfer appropriate processing
Breadth of processing
Encoding specificity
- You have better memory for information if you use the same type of processing when you try to retrieve it as you did when you originally studied it Example → stimulus: GAIN → study : Does this word rhyme with '' train" ? → same processing atretrieval : A word the rhymes with " brain " →Different processing at retrieval : A word that means '' to attain more ".
- processing that organizes and integrates new information , often by making associations
- Information is encoded more effectively if it is organized and integrated into what you already know
- Elaborative encoding
- Encoding specificity looks at how people learn
- Encoding is the process of forming the memory Encoding specificity principle → context - dependent learning People were either learning words on land or underwater. Then they were tested either on land or underwater. What we found was context dependent learning , so if you studied on land and were tested on land , you did far better than if you studied on land and tested underwater. Or if you studied underwater and tested on land. (So longruet conditions work better than incongruent conditions) → state - dependent tearing; based on our emotional state ccongruet condition are better than incongruent conditions) →Mood - dependent learning → context - dependent forgetting (Ex: studyingin 1 room the forgets because you are tested in another room) → context - reinstatement effect ; you will remember again when you go backto where you studied it.
- Retrieval and encoding might seem like opposites , but the 2 work well together when they share something in common
- Encoding specificity Principle : predicts that retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as encoding 2)Shared context can include internal factors CEX: mood) or external factors ( Ex: characteristics of the room you're in).
- There are several ways to observe
Amnesia
Repression and suppression of memory
False memories
- Retrograde amnesia: Forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma
- Anterograde amnesia : Forgetting events that follow an injury or trama
- consolidation : process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain Repression → Repression : Unconsciously pushing painful , embarrassing , or threatening memories out of awareness I consciousness → Recovered false memory debate → Motivated forgetting , according to some theories suppression →suppression: consciously putting something painful or threatening out of mind or trying to keep it from entering awareness
- Both repression and suppression can lead to false memories False memory →Misinformation effect → Example : staged car accidents DRM procedure → Given a list of words and all the words have something in common. The commonality is called a critical lure.. The people are asked to write down words they remember from the list , and very often people include the critical lure . Which is you remember it being there even though it is not on the list, just because it is similar.
Retrieval: more than the past
The danger of false remembering
False Memories : constructing memories of what never happened → One of the most interesting and research topics of memory is false memory → False memory : remembering events that did not occur , or incorrectly recalling details of an event → Every time we revisit a memory , it is reconstructed , which opens the possibility of getting some details incorrect, even those about which weare extremely confident.
- False memories can lead to a lot of problems in terms of court cases Imagery and False memories → Guided imagery → The more clearly and readily we can imagine events, the more certain we are the memories are accurate - Researchers used this information to create false memories in a number of ways → Guided imagery involves a researcher giving instructions to participants to imagine certain events - similar to the misinformation effect, gudied imagery can be used to alter memories for actual events as well as created events - Imagination inflation - False photographs → Doctored pictures and video →Brain activity for true us. false memories Loftus 11993 ) study of false memories → Teenage boys told about being lost in shopping mall at young age → Told as if story were fact , but really fiction → Later recalled as real by 25% of participants →Recalled with surprising detail
- Example: recalled flannel shirt worn by stranger who found him ,
scolding by mother
Recovered memories
→Freudian psychoanalysis
- It was an issue the 80 's with Freudian psychoanalysis, where many individual 's went to psychotherapy for anexity or depression , and they would leave therapy with different types of problems. They would leave therapy with discovering that they might have been abused as a child either sexually or phonically
- Freudian psychologist often said that these were repressed memories
- This acutal ly resulted in some people being arrested and enacted of child abuse or childhood negIi eat, but the issues is that not all this memory was true Recovered memory controversy → Debate over validcity → Beth Rutherford
Memory, stress, emotion
Exceptional memory
Improving memory
Flashbulb memories → Memories created during times of personal tragedy , accident, or other emotionally significant events → Example : September 11 , 200 I →Both positive and negative events → Great confidence in them even though they may be inaccurate Memory champions → Have naturally superior memory abilities , often including vivid mental images → Do not have superior intellectat abilities or different brains. → Have specialized interests and knowledge that make certain types of information easier to encode and recall → Use memory strategies and techniques Learning to chunk → Knowledge of results: Feedback allowing you to check your progress →Recitation : summarizing aloud while you are learning → Rehearsal : Reviewing information mentally (silently) →selection : selecting most important concepts to memorize. → organization : organizing difficult items into chunks , A type of reordering Encoding strategies → Use elaborative encoding →Be selective → Organization → consider whole versus part learning → Beware serial position → Encode retrieval cues → overlearn → use spaced practice - whole learning: studying an entire package of information at once , like a poem - Part Learning : studying subparts of a larger body of information ( like text chapters) - progressive part learning : Breaking learning task into a series of short sections - Serial position Effect : Making most errors while remembering the middle of the list
- overlearning: studying is continued beyond initial mastery
- spaced practice: Alternating study sessions with brief rest periods
- Massed practice : studying for long periods without rest periods ,
- lack of sleep decreases retention , Hunger decreases retention
- cognitive Interview : technique used to jog memories of eyewitnesses Retrieval strategies → Retrieval practice → Using a strategy to aid recall → Extend how long you remember → Mind your sleep → Mind your hunger → Look ahead
