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Personality Final pt2 - part 2 of the hardest concepts in the course
part 2 of the hardest concepts in the course
Course
Psychology Of Personality (PSYC2054)
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Academic year: 2022/2023
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Monozygotic (MZ) versus dizygotic (DZ) twins
Monozygotic
○ Came from single egg
○ Identical twins
○ 100% genetically similar
○ Number of copies of genes differs; effects how bodies function and what diseases
we may develop
Dizygotic
○ Two separate eggs
○ No more alike than any other brothers and sisters
○ 50% of genes in common, but not identical sets (on avg.)
○ Could have no genes in common at all, by chance
○ Could be identical, by chance
● Assumptions
Heritability coefficient
Heritability quotient: (rMZ-rDZ) × 2
● Difference in correlations between MZ and DZ pairs multiplied by 2 equals the
heritability estimate
● Index of genetic influence on a trait
● Heritability coefficients from twin studies ~.
● Heritability coefficients from non-twin studies ~.
● Difference suggests that the effects of genes are interactive and multiplicative
● Parents and child share 50%; grandparents and grandchild share 25%; siblings (non-twin)
share 50%; first cousins share 12%
Does the family matter?
<No or very little> <Yes>
Extreme conclusion Developmental psychology and shared family
environment
Behavioral genetics studies on the effect of
shared family environment
Behavioral observation
Research primarily using self-reports
● DRD4 affects dopamine receptors
○ Related to sensation seeking
○ Associated with risk of ADHD
● 5-HTT gene affects serotonin
○ Alleles and cultural differences
○ People falling short are at risk for depression and antisocial behavior
● Self-esteem: “sociometer theory” developed by Mark Leary
○ feelings of self-esteem evolved to monitor the degree to which a person is
accepted by others
Psychosexual development – Freud
1. Oral
● Masculine protest: a particular urge in adulthood is an attempt to compensate for
one’s powerlessness felt in childhood
● Style of life – based on compensating for perceived childhood inferiorities
Carl Jung= mystical and spiritual ideology (atheist)
● Collective unconscious and archetypes
● Earth mother, hero, devil, supreme being
● Persona: social mask
● Anima: the idea, or prototype, of the female, as held in the mind of a male
● Animus: the idea, or prototype, of the male as held in the mind of a female
Karen Horney= penis envy<sexism
● Basic anxiety – fear of being alone and helpless
● Neurotic needs: neither realistic nor truly desirable; can lead to self-defeating
behavior and relationship problems because the needs are contradictory
Erik Erikson= Psychosocial Development
1. Basic trust versus mistrust (0–2 years)
a. Will needs be met?
b. corresponds to the oral stage
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (3–4 years)
a. Who’s in charge?
b. corresponds to the anal stage
3. Initiative versus guilt (4–7 years)
a. Right vs wrong
b. corresponds to the phallic stage
4. Industry versus inferiority (8–12 years)
a. Develop life skills
b. corresponds to the latency period
5. Identity versus identity confusion (adolescence)
a. Who am I?
b. What are my values and goals?
c. corresponds to the genital stage
6. Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood)
a. Find a life partner
7. Generativity versus stagnation (middle age)
a. Turn passive
8. Integrity versus despair (old age)
a. Feelings about life and death
Melanie Klein and D. W. Winnicott= object relations theory
● We relate to others via the images of them in our minds.
● The images do not always match reality
● Neurotic defenses: used to deal with the contradictory and irrational desires to
both destroy and worship love objects; idealization
● Transitional objects: used to bridge the gap between private fantasy and reality;
source of comfort when the adult is not available; help the child face the world
alone
● The false self: the self people put on to please others; similar to Jung’s persona;
to some degree, this is normal and necessary (basic social etiquette and
politeness)
Discussion Question: Why do you think there are not current researchers who identify
themselves as neo-Freudians?
psychoanalysis gradually faded from view due to several trends, including the rise of
behaviorism (see Chapter 14), the increased separation of academic psychology from
clinical practice, and the appeal of one-shot laboratory studies over difficult, complex
theoretical efforts
Humanistic psychology and phenomenology
● Free will and uniquely human aspects
● “We do not see things as they are. We see them as we are.” –Talmud
● “It is not things in themselves that trouble us, but our opinions of things.”
–Epictetus
● “If you are distressed about anything external, the pain is not due to the thing
itself, but to your estimate of it; and this you have the power to revoke at any
moment.” –Marcus Aurelius
● “I do not react to some absolute reality, but to my perception of this reality. It is
this perception which for me is reality.” –Carl Rogers
Thrown-ness: In Heidegger’s existential analysis, the era, location, and situation into
which a person happens to be born.
Angst or existential anxiety: the anxiety that stems from doubts about the meaning and purpose
of life
● Anguish
● Forlornness: pitifully sad and abandoned or lonely
● Despair
Bad Faith (head-in-sand approach)
Ignore the problem and distract yourself by doing what society tells you to do
Our moral imperative – face up to angst and thrown-ness
● Requires existential courage or optimistic toughness
Living in bad faith – avoiding the moral imperative
● Opposite: authentic existence
The Eastern Alternative
Existentialism is European, Western, and focused on the individual
Existentialism: W-I-F-E
● Repeat with ideas, traits, and so on
● How things are discriminated reveals a person’s constructs
○ The way in which you define and make sense out of the world
○ Strong vs weak
Chronically accessible constructs
● Sources of constructs
● Automatic
Personal construct system
● Function of their interpretation of their experiences
Sociality corollary
● Understanding other people and how they see the world
Constructs and reality
● Constructive alternativism – numerous construals are possible; you choose
○ any pattern of experience can lead to numerous—perhaps infinite—construals
● Question the construals of reality that you are taught and those that become chronically
accessible
● “How you choose to see the world will affect everything in your life”
Example of Maximizers versus satisficers
● Try to get all that you can out of everything vs settling for what’s “good enough”
● Satisficers tend to be happier (because they don’t get let down as much)
Core Virtues Across Cultures
Core virtues: courage, justice, humanity (compassion), temperance, wisdom, transcendence
Hedonic vs eudaimonic well-being
● Crucial distinction in self-determination theory
Flow
● Autotelic activities
○ enjoyable for their own sake; doing what you enjoy most is the best way to
spend your time
● Enculturation
○ The process of socialization through which an individual acquires his or her
native culture, mainly early in life.
● Acculturation
○ The process of social influence by which a person partially or fully acquires a new
cultural outlook, either by having contact with or living in a culture different from
his or her culture of origin
Cross-cultural variation studies primarily WEIRD: Western, educated, indsustrialized, rich,
democratic (12% of earth pop)
Etics- aspects of a phenomenon that all cultures have in common
Emics- components that are specific to a particular culture
Ways Cross-cultural researchers have tried to categorize different cultures
● Tough (only a few goals are valued) vs easy (many goals to pursue)
● Achievement vs affiliation- orientation toward getting along with others and persevering;
can be seen in children’s books (ex: the little engine that could)
● Tightness vs looseness- tolerance for deviation; related to how homogenous the group is
● Head vs heart
● Honor- important when laws and police are weak
○ Has to do with standing up for yourself and maintain honor of self and family
● Face- important in stable hierarchies base on cooperation
○ Respected social status
○ Cultures that avoid controversy are typically high in face
● Dignity- individuals are valuable
○ Value doesn’t come from others (individualistic)
○ Only conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness should be
considered universal
○ Two categories according to Schwarts and Sagic: openness to
change–conservatism dimension, and the other they called the
self-transcendence–self-enhancement dimension
■ Stimulation: high openness to change, low conservatism
■ Conformity, tradition, and security: high conservatism, low openness
■ Achievement: high self enhancement, low self-transcendence
■ Benevolence: high self-transcendence, low self-enhancement
The Origin of Cultural Differences
WHY are cultures different? What determines the specific, distinctive psychology that a
particular culture develops?
The ecological approach
● Older model
Ecology (physical layout and resources of the land where culture originated)→ Culture →
Socialization → Personality → Behavior
○ Internal vs external locus of control
● Bandura’s theory
○ Most popular social learning theorist
Motivation: Goals
Idiographic goals
unique to the individuals who pursue them
● Current concerns: characterizes daily life
● Personal projects: daily things we are working on
● Personal strivings: a little broader, may organize goals
● Found by asking the individual
Nomothetic goals
relatively small number of essential motivations
● Almost everyone experiences them
● May bring order to ideographic goals
● Number of goals
○ McClelland's three primary motivations (TAT): needs for achievement,
affiliation/intimacy, and power
○ Emmon’s five: enjoyment, self-assertion, esteem, interpersonal success, avoidance of
negative affect
○ Freud’s two: work and social interaction (love)
● Judgment goals and development goals
■ Judgement: seeking to judge or validate an attribute in oneself
■ Development: desire to actually improve oneself
● Entity theories and incremental theories
○ Entity: believe that personal qualities such as intelligence and ability are unchangeable,
leading them to respond helplessly to any indication that they do not have what it takes
○ Incremental: believing that intelligence and ability can change with time and experience
Emotion: Varieties of Emotions
Core emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust
CAPS vs BEATS
CAPS: Cognitive-affective personality systems (CAPS)
● A stable system mediates how people select, construe, and process social information and
generate social behavior
● If.. contingencies
● Behavioral signature
Beats: Beliefs, emotions, and action tendencies (BEATS)
● Basic motivations lead to goals; goals create BEATS
The I and the Me
● William James
● The I or ontological self
○ Experiences life, makes decisions
○ The somewhat mysterious inner self of thinking, observation, and
experience (subjective, felt)
● The me or epistemological self (objective, self-reflective)
● Recent research focuses on the me
Psychological Self organizes thoughts and knowledge
The Self-Schema
Self-Schema
● Where the declarative self resides
● Can be assessed with S data or B data
○ Self-report or behavioral data
● Can be thought of as mental organization of personality traits
Mary Ainsworth
● Developed the strange situation task
John Bowlby= attachment as trait desire for protection
DSM-5 New system for Personality Disorders
● No clusters
● Six major disorders
● Four detected from old system:
○ Schizoid
○ Histrionic
○ Dependent
○ Paranoid
Was this document helpful?
Personality Final pt2 - part 2 of the hardest concepts in the course
Course: Psychology Of Personality (PSYC2054)
69 Documents
Students shared 69 documents in this course
Was this document helpful?
Monozygotic (MZ) versus dizygotic (DZ) twins
Monozygotic
○Came from single egg
○Identical twins
○100% genetically similar
○Number of copies of genes differs; effects how bodies function and what diseases
we may develop
Dizygotic
○Two separate eggs
○No more alike than any other brothers and sisters
○50% of genes in common, but not identical sets (on avg.)
○Could have no genes in common at all, by chance
○Could be identical, by chance
●Assumptions
Heritability coefficient
Heritability quotient: (rMZ-rDZ) 2×
●Difference in correlations between MZ and DZ pairs multiplied by 2 equals the
heritability estimate
●Index of genetic influence on a trait
●Heritability coefficients from twin studies ~.40
●Heritability coefficients from non-twin studies ~.20
●Difference suggests that the effects of genes are interactive and multiplicative
●Parents and child share 50%; grandparents and grandchild share 25%; siblings (non-twin)
share 50%; first cousins share 12.5%
Does the family matter?
<No or very little>
<Yes>
Extreme conclusion
Developmental psychology and shared family
environment
Behavioral genetics studies on the effect of
shared family environment
Behavioral observation
Research primarily using self-reports
●DRD4 affects dopamine receptors
○Related to sensation seeking
○Associated with risk of ADHD
●5-HTT gene affects serotonin
○Alleles and cultural differences
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