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Lesson 2 - Education

Education

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Bachelor of education (90102)

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University of South Africa

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LEARNING UNIT 2

Practices and possibilities in instruction

2 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we will distinguish between and evaluate differing standpoints regarding instruction. We will look at different forms of instruction, different contexts for instruction and different approaches to instruction. Education, teaching, and instruction are not context free, and they cannot be dened in singular terms. Denitions will be based on different philosophies and beliefs regarding teaching and learning. This will enable you to make judicious instructional decisions and may even present you with new or different ways of understanding instruction and the vital role you play in instructional design. After studying this unit, you should be able to identify and critically evaluate different standpoints, alternative practices and exciting possibilities in instruction. You will be able to highlight and critically appraise the similarities and differences between various forms of instruction, and you will explore different levels of instruction. The content for this learning unit includes:

Different styles of instruction

Different forms of instruction
Instructional contexts
Instructional approaches and strategies
Instruction at different levels

2 STYLES OF INSTRUCTION

There are three main styles of instruction, which are usually informed by a teacher’s own personality. They are the permissive , the democratic and the authoritative approach to teaching and learning. A permissive teaching style is one where the learners can do just about anything they please in a classroom, as the teacher sets few or no rules. In other cases, the teacher may have set rules, but is inconsistent in imposing them, and expects the learners to organise and monitor themselves. This can result in frustration for learners who are not ready for this responsibility or whose peers take over the classroom. At the opposite end of the spectrum is the authoritative stance. The teacher who adopts this stance does not allow learners much input into the lesson: they are there to receive knowledge and to follow instructions. The democratic teacher is one who is exible within the learning arrangement. Democratic teachers include their learners in decision-making in the classroom regarding classroom norms and rules. These teachers consider and value learners as individuals who are able to contribute to their own learning. A teacher’s style is a personal quality. Many teachers are not aware that they have a leaning towards a certain style, and teachers often develop a certain style because they experienced it as a dominant style when they themselves were learners. Your teaching style may also be

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affected by your knowledge of different teaching styles. As a teacher, you need to try a variety of styles and forms of teaching. This will enable you to determine the best style for certain age groups, subjects, and time frames.

2 FORMS OF INSTRUCTION: TRAINING, TEACHING,

FACILITATING, TUTORING AND MENTORING

Instruction should suit the needs of the learners and the outcomes envisaged. Forms of instruction have developed to meet various needs. As we discussed in Learning unit 1, there are many different words that mean “teaching”. Look at this grid and analyse it as a way to differentiate between different forms of instruction. Do you agree with the positioning of “teaching”?

Table 2 Teaching in terms of goals and process

Process of learning/think- ing is as important as the knowledge and skills

Practical application of knowledge/skills is important

Long-term goal oriented

Teaching Mentoring

Short-term goal oriented Facilitating Training

What would your matrix look like if you had to create one to differentiate between these terms related to instruction?

A Venn diagram can also help us to understand the similarities and differences between the different forms of instruction. One interpretation is to see teaching as including all the other forms of instruction, as in the diagram below:

Figure 2: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

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Or are the forms perhaps too different to be placed together in a single diagram? What do you think?

Activity 2.

Were you able to integrate these concepts? Do they all t into your diagram meaning- fully? It’s quite dicult to distinguish between them, isn’t it?

2 INSTRUCTIONAL CONTEXTS

Whenever people interact, there is the potential for teaching and learning to take place. Instruction can take place in many contexts: it can take place at home, at work, and in specic instructional institutions such as schools or colleges. Bear in mind our earlier denition of teaching as involving instruction by human beings, while instruction can take place without the presence of another person (reading a manual, following computer instructions).

2.4 Formal contexts

These relate to formal institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities, where instruction takes place in set classrooms or lecture venues. Instruction is organised by means of set timetables, and learners are grouped according to various criteria: for example, at school level the learners are of similar age, while in post-school situations this may not be the case. These institutions are there to provide an already agreed upon or policy sanctioned curriculum. Formal institutions are registered with a relevant body that oversees their functioning and quality of instruction. However, formal contexts also include distance institutions offering formal programmes. It is necessary in the modern world not to focus on the setting as the only determinant of formal education. More and more courses are offered online, which means that formal learning does not always take place within a specic setting. However, the module or certicate is part of a formal programme. It is the context that is formal. With regard to the formal school context, Turner and Meyer (2000:70) explain that:

the instructional context is a distinct but overlapping aspect of the classroom context and includes the inuences of the teacher, students, content area, and instructional activities on learning, teaching, and motivation. The various contexts within a class- room, such as the instructional context, are naturally dicult to dene because they are simultaneous and interdependent, making them uid rather than static. In addition, denitions vary widely depending on whether they have been examined from psychological, educational, sociological, or anthropological perspectives.

The EDU/EDPC (2007:5) documents dene formal learning as follows:

[Learners] may learn during courses or during a training session in the workplace; this is formal learning. The activity is designed as having learning objectives and in- dividuals attend with the explicit goal of acquiring skills, knowledge or competences.

Formal learning contexts therefore are goal oriented, there are professional or skilled teachers or instructors, and the learning is measured.

2.4 Informal contexts

The EPU/EPDC documents (2007:5) state that learners “may learn in activities without learning objectives and without knowing they are learning; this is informal learning.”

This means that informal learning takes place in most contexts where people interact, and that people could learn something informally without having any prior intention of learning. You could learn informally through a discussion with friends, or by watching a movie, as in both these circumstances you did not deliberately set out to learn something.

2.4 Non-formal contexts

The EPU/EPDC (2007:5) dene non-formal learning as follows:

[Learners] may learn during work or leisure activities that do not have learning objectives but individuals are aware they are learning; this is non-formal learning. Individuals observe or do things with the intention of becoming more skilled, more knowledgeable and/or more competent.

People may learn through non-formal activities such as pursuing hobbies. They may attend workshops or seminars relating to their hobbies with the intention of learning more. You could learn in non-formal contexts such as cooking classes or watching a YouTube clip on how to catch sh using a shing rod.

Activity 2.

(1) Think of what you have learnt in the three instructional contexts we have just discussed. (2) What could a learner at school learn formally, informally or non-formally? (3) Log on to myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 2 on this topic.

As human beings, we are learning all the time, in different contexts and in different situations. Isn’t it exciting to be part of a career in human learning?

2 IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

A number of approaches and strategies relating to instruction have developed over time.

A number of instructional approaches have developed out of theories of learning. The three basic theoretical approaches are based on behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism. As a teacher, you need to understand these. Please watch the following video clip, which will help you understand the link between learning theories and instructional theories.

Table 2 Broad differences in learning theories (Jennings & Surgenor [s.])

Activity 2.

(1) Why is it “easier” for a teacher to adopt a behaviourist approach in the classroom? (2) What is the effect of the behaviourist approach on learning? (3) If you were a school principal, how might you encourage your teachers to change from a behaviourist to a constructivist approach? (4) Which perspective is more closely aligned to African ideas and world-views?

In terms of African perspectives, a collaborative, constructivist approach is dominant. The more Western perspective is rational and objective, and only more recently have Western approaches moved closer to social constructivist ones. Teachers may

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prefer behaviourist approaches because they can tick off observable behaviour on a checklist as evidence of teaching and learning. However, not all learning is observable as behaviour. This ties in with an approach being either teacher centred or learner centered. Your textbook provides a brief outline of teacher-centred versus learner- centred approaches.

Textbook chapter 2

Instructional strategies are an integral part of instructional studies. Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp (2011:149) suggest the following as pertinent questions to ask before deciding on an instructional strategy:

What is the best way to teach a fact, a concept, a rule, a procedure, an interpersonal skill, or an attitude? How can I make the instruction meaningful? How can I teach an objective that focuses on interpersonal skills? What is the best way to present the content so that each learner will master the objectives?

Start by focusing on a broad approach, such as either a teacher-centred or a learner- centred approach. Direct instruction or lecture-based instruction is a teacher-centred approach, while inquiry-based strategies are more learner-centred. To help you choose between the two, think about whether you want your learners to “reproduce” (what you said or did) or “produce” (their own ideas or actions) in their learning. Your next level of decision-making involves the actual method or strategy you will use.

2 IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

We will focus on a few major forms of instructional strategies. In this module, we take a general look at these strategies, so that in time you will be able to adapt them to the specic subjects and grades that you teach.

2.6 Constructivist, active and cooperative instruction strategies

Baviskar, Hartle and Whitney (2009:542) briey dene constructivism as a theory of learning and not a theory of curriculum design. Therefore, when a lesson is said to be constructivist, it does not necessarily follow a specic formula. Instead, a constructivist lesson is one that is designed and implemented in a way that creates the greatest opportunities for students to learn, regardless of the techniques used.

Constructivism is regarded as the umbrella term for several forms of constructivism, such as radical constructivism and social constructivism.

Baviskar et al. set out four criteria that must be met in order for a lesson to be considered constructivist (2009:544). The first criterion is that prior knowledge must

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for a small part of the lesson. Direct instruction assumes that the learner does not know anything about the topic or concept, and cannot become involved in developing the knowledge. However, direct instruction should not only have negative connotations. The following chapter of your textbook describe direct instruction clearly:

Textbook chapter 3