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Cultures Contemporary WITH THE Harappan Civilization
Ancient India (HSB654)
Aligarh Muslim University
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CULTURES CONTEMPORARY WITH THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
One of India's only literate subcontinental segments with a transregional spatial spread from Baluchistan to upper Ganga-Yamuna doab and from Jammu to Gujarat dominates its archaeology in the third millennium-early second millennium BC. BC. The Harappan civilisation. In the previous Unit, you learned about its various features. This section aims to show that this civilization was not isolated from the rest of the world. On the contrary, significant cultural shifts were taking place outside of the Harappan distribution area and even beyond the Harappan world. Village societies began to emerge in areas where only hunter- gatherer groups had previously lived, and these societies then expanded into areas where agricultural-pastoral groups had already established themselves. From this time onwards, there is a near-unbroken succession of cultures that are visible in most parts of inner India. The fact that there are few gaps in the sequence of these cultures also indicates that we are looking at occupations that are fairly continuous. This does not imply that the descendants of the original inhabitants of these regions remained there for millennia without interruption. In the same way that today's population is constantly shifting, there must have been a similar movement of people in the past. New groups of people arrived and settled in the same areas, and often at the same sites, where early farmers first established their villages in the third and second millennia BC.
Northwest and the Chalcolithic Roots of Iron Technology
As a starting point, one can look at the cultural configurations in the previously discussed regions. The neolithic situation in northwest Pakistan was replaced by a copper/bronze-using culture known as the Gandhara Grave culture between 2000 and 1800 BC (its first phase is dated to this period which in terms of the general sequence of the Ghalighai caves is Phase V). In addition to the large grave complexes on the hillsides (in which cremation prevailed over inhumation), the settlements were also marked by rectangular stone structures. It was located in the hills of the area between Swat and Chitral-at Timargarha and Balambat and Thana-and in close proximity to Peshawar Valley, where Zarif Karuna is situated.
While neolithic-chalcolithic sites flourished in Kashmir, an iron-bearing megalithic level was discovered at Gufkral (Period II). In the vicinity of c. 2000 BC, there are four dates that have been calibrated. There is little doubt that this marks the beginning of iron technology in this region, with just two points or needles and an indeterminate fragment. We shouldn't be surprised by this given that iron objects in similar early contexts have been found in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh as well as the Harappan sites of Lothal and Allahadino. Such a situation is common in the larger context of the cultures of the Old World. Iron smelting, for example, was well-known to the Sumerian people of the Bronze Age.
One must distinguish between the beginning of iron technology, which can be dated to the third millennium BC in the Indian context, and when the Iron Age began to arrive. Iron Age can be defined as the period between significant iron presence in archaeological sequences and beginning of early historical period in a given area, and it is reasonably clear that large parts of the Indian subcontinent had entered the 'Iron Age' by around 1000 BC, while in certain areas it may have started earlier. We may still be experiencing a neolithic-chalcolithic phenomenon in Kashmir due to the prehistoric people's reliance on stone technology and copper-based artefacts in Kashmir.
Fortified Ahar Culture Settlements of Rajasthan
The chalcolithic cultures of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura and Ahar can be found in Rajasthan. As before, copper artefacts and local metalwork are abundant. A combination of farming and stock raising appears to have been the primary mode of subsistence. In addition to bones from various domesticated animals (cows, buffalo, sheep, goat, and pig), wheat, barley, two varieties of millet, gramme and linseed are found. Wild animals include a variety of deer, turtle, fish, pea fowl, and fowl. Large silo bases, storage bins, and structures that appear to be granaries can be found in Balathal and Gilund, indicating a strong agricultural economy. However, two of the many archaeological aspects of the Rajasthani cultures are particularly notable. There is a noticeable amount of iron in the area. Many iron objects from the Ahar culture's second and third phases can be found at Ahar, for example. Carnelian beads with etched designs and a lapis lazuli bead, both of Harappan origin, have also been discovered in the same areas as these. This culture is contemporaneous with the Harappan civilization, as evidenced by the 2100 and 1900 BC calibration points for these phases.
The second thing worth noting is that the character of Ahar culture settlements has now been revealed to be quite complex. There are over eighty locations, some of which are only a few acres in size while others are more than ten acres in size (Ahar and Gilund would fall in this category). Excavated evidence from Balathal and Gilund also shows that this was a society where some settlements were complex in structure and function. At Balathal, the earlier village-like settlement is replaced by a more complex one in Phase 2, which is marked by multi-roomed structural complexes in which kitchen and storage spaces can be found. At Balathal, archaeologists discovered a surprising number of features usually associated with Harappan settlements. For starters, this is a 500-square-meter fortified settlement. In terms of width, the fortifications range from 4 to 5 metres, with a stone-reinforced mud core inside and outside. There is a large bastion in this area to the west of the city. It's also significant that rectangular houses are built with mud bricks and stone. Last but not least, the settlement is bisected by a street with an irregular width (2 metres north of south, 4 metres north of south), which also happens to be home to a small lane.
Recently excavated mud/mud-brick fortifications around both Gilund mounds have revealed the existence of an interconnecting roadway between them. For reasons that aren't entirely clear, some Harappan sites appear to have been built on elevated areas, while others appear to have been built on the ground level. The possibility that Gilund and Balathal were the regional headquarters of a chiefdom organisation must be considered in light of the nature of these settlements. It is also possible that the architectural features of these centres were based on those of nearby Harappan towns. By this time, agricultural and pastoral groups had already established themselves in Rajasthan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Inner India is the first place where we see the presence of these societies, such as in Maharashtra and the upper and middle Gangetic plains of the Malwa Plateau.
Pioneer Farmers of Malwa and Maharashtra
An extensive fertile plateau dominates Malwa and is drained by a slew of rivers including the Chambal, Kali Sindh, Narmada, Sipra, and Betwa. Located in the Ujjain district of central India, the Kayatha type site is located on the banks of the Choti Kali Sindh, an auxiliary of the
kinds of artefacts in these hoards, including harpoons, swords, and axes of all shapes and sizes. Lothal's mature Harappan context contains an anthropomorphic/lugged axe, which dates to the second half of the third millennium BC. Additionally, the farming groups of this culture coexisted with the Harappans in some areas of the doab. As a result, the OCP culture must share the status of being the first farming communities of the doab with the Harappans.
Nature of Contacts Between Harappan and Non-Harappan India
It is important to emphasise the importance of trade and interaction between the Harappan civilization and the neolithic-chalcolithic horizons that have been briefly discussed here. If we look at the big picture, none of these horizons can be considered isolated village societies. On the one hand, raw materials used in neolithic Chirand and chalcolithic Ahar strongly demonstrate this. The Harappans may have received copper, alloying metals, semi-precious stones, and other items from these cultures because they were located in resource-rich areas. Ahar has etched carnelian beads, Kayatha has steatite microbeads, and Chechar-Kutubpur has steatite microbeads, all of which point to the presence of Harappan- and Harappan-inspired objects in these places. It should also be taken into account that the Harappans may have adapted some of their cultural traits from the contemporaneous neolithic-chalcolithic horizons. The Gangetic plains appear to have been the primary rice-growing area in India prior to the 3rd millennium BC, according to a study of crop patterns. According to some theories, the Harappan subsistence pattern's reliance on rice (found at Harappa, Mitthal, and Gujarat sites) may have developed as a result of trade with areas east of the Indus River. Many people from Sind and Cholistan fled to areas east of the Harappan distribution zone after their cities and towns fell into disrepair and were abandoned.
Cultures Contemporary WITH THE Harappan Civilization
Course: Ancient India (HSB654)
University: Aligarh Muslim University
