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Polity Religion AND Culture IN THE POST Gupta Period
Ancient India (HSB654)
Aligarh Muslim University
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POLITY, RELIGION AND CULTURE IN THE POST-GUPTA PERIOD
Introduction
The Guptas and Pushyabhutis ruled the north, the Vakatakas, Kadambas, and Chalukyas of Badami ruled the Deccan, and the Pallavas ruled southern Andhra and Tamil Nadu. In several sections of the land, there were minor kingdoms and chieftains. Important sources for studying this period's politics include the Harshacharita of Bana and Chinese travelogues such as Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang. During this time period, hereditary monarchy ruled limited provinces, with a few acquiring greater sovereign authority. For example, Harsha (early 7th century CE) ruled vast territory. This unit examines the political organisation between 300 and 700 CE. We will also try to illustrate how these qualities differ from prior periods' political structure, indicating that significant changes occurred in the country's political organisation throughout this time. You will also learn about current changes in religion and society.
KINGSHIP
King dominated much of the country. Only a few outposts of the gana (tribe republic) remained. After Samudragupta's military incursions in north India early in the 4th century CE, most of these tribal kingdoms nearly vanished. So no more Madra and Yaudheya in Punjab, Abhira in central India, etc. Some tribal chieftains became kingdoms. The King acquired ostentatious names like pararnamahesvara, rajadhiraja, paramabhattaraka, etc. to show his dominance over other weaker monarchs. During this time period, divine right became popular. According to this idea, the King was prithvivallabha, “the Earth Goddess's Beloved”. The other four lokapalas or protectors of the four cardinal directions were Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama. It was blended with the idea of the King as a guardian and protector.
The king was born. Though primogeniture, or the eldest son succeeding his father, was typically the rule, there were several exceptions. Nobles and counsellors sometimes choose kings. The King, as head of state, was in charge of all administrative matters. He was the highest judge who led his troops to combat. There are references of queens ruling, such as Didda, the later Kashmiri queen. But the queens mostly stayed in the background.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Unlike the Mauryan era, there is no trace of a central mantriparishad (council of ministers) advising the King. But many prominent officials were termed mantrin. Other titles for senior officials included sandhivigarhika (minister of foreign affairs, war, and peace), mahabaladhikrita (general), and mahadandanayaka (general). For example, Harishena, who penned the renowned Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, is claimed to have been both a sandhivigrahika and a mahadandanayaka. Most official and high officer designations survived the Gupta era. For
example, kumaramatyas were a class of officials. The kumaramatyas are described in many capacities such as sandhivigrahika, mahabaladhikrita, etc. Some were directly under the King's command, while others appeared to serve princes and regional governors. Uparikawas in charge of a bhukti, a bureau. Ayuktaka, like Vishayapati, was a bureaucrat who worked between the bhukti and the hamlet. They were called bhogika or bhogapati because they were allocated income of specific defined regions. The Harshacharita mentions peasant complaints to Harsha against such authorities. The offices also became hereditary, eroding the King's power over time. Army
During this time period, a permanent army was required to preserve internal peace and protect against external attack. As stated previously, a number of prominent military leaders clearly led this force. This army's cavalry was vital. The Pallavas in the south possessed a fleet. During this period, chariots are rare. The royal army was backed up by feudatory chiefs' militia (samanta). Admin Divisions
For administrative considerations, the nation was divided. The highest territorial division was the bhukti, which was headed by an uparika. Princes sometimes ran bhuktis. The village was the next administrative division below Vishaya. Vishaya was also known as rashtra. In eastern India, the vishayas were also split into vithis. Vishayapatis, or local influential individuals, were in charge of government. Each village had a headman and village elders. Craft and commerce guilds administered the urban villages and cities. Samanta Local chiefs named samanta were significant in this era's politics. We know Samudragupta conquered and
ruled many lands Princes from the Gupta empire's periphery were appointed subservient friends of the King. They became the Gupta king's feudatories, giving him periodic tribute. This persisted post-Gupta. Some Samantas gave the King their daughters. They had to personally honour the King by visiting his court. The King acknowledged their authority to reign over their own areas and granted them charters. During battle, these subordinate rulers had to send their soldiers to fight in the King's army. They were left in charge of their own regions, subject to the foregoing requirements.
The giving of land to priests and officials for their support was another aspect that promoted decentralised governance. In general, the King relinquished administrative rights like as taxation and criminal prosecution. The awarded areas were likewise exempt from the King's troops. Naturally, the grantees of such territories became samantas, practically independent of the King. Officials began using grandiose names like mahasamanta and “one who obtained the privilege of five great sounds (panchamahasabda)” starting in the 7th century CE. The samantas and mahasamantas claimed authority through these titles. Because of these characteristics, historians believe that India's governmental system evolved into a feudal system after the Gupta era. Taxation
The orthodox Brahmanical system was still being challenged, notably by Shaivism, poet- saints, and Tantric worshippers.
Most faiths acquired institutional roots in the shape of temples and monasteries, whether Brahmanism, Buddhism, or Shaivism.
In addition to land transfers, ruling forces and elites funded institutions, Brahmanas, monks, acharyas (religious leaders) and others. These patronage activities bolstered the governing classes' social foundation. Bhakti's birth
Brahmanism had to tolerate new gods like Shiva and Vishnu alongside old gods like Indra and Varuna. It also absorbed prominent deities like Vasudeva and Skanda. All of this fueled the Bhakti cult.
Later Brahmanism was able to adapt to new developments. This was required to combat the ‘heretical factions' that opposed Brahmanism. Also, Brahmanism eventually switched its focus from Vedic rites to Bhakti, which meant cultivating and developing an impersonal relationship between the deity and the devotee. Thus, a monotheistic God with Shiva or Vishnu as his manifestation was gaining strength. Bhakti became the driving force of later Brahmanism (Hinduism). God Syncretism
The new Brahmanism's brilliance was to synthesise numerous local deities into a monotheistic big God. Syncretism means that deities worshipped by various individuals and regions were acknowledged as manifestations of the same ultimate god. Vasudeva was therefore linked with Vishnu, a minor Vedic god, and Narayana, a mysterious Brahmana god. Then Vishnu was linked to Krishna, a synthesis of a warrior god and a flute-playing pastoral deity. In addition to the holy boar cult, Vishnu assimilated the Brahmana hero Parashurama's and the Ramayana's hero Rama's cults. Then, in the Bhagavad Gita, Vishnu became the Universal God.
A same fate befell Shiva, who was revered as a phallic symbol, along with the Vedic Rudra and Bhairava (linga). Later, Shiva was linked to Skanda and Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity. These theistic religions emphasised worship rather than Vedic sacrifice. Tribal Rituals InclusionLater Brahmanism also included tribal ceremonies, making the Vedic Yajna rites paramount only in principle. Over time, the virtues of these new rites were equated with the Vedic Yajna. The tribal sacred sites were also made into new pilgrimage sites (tirtha) with acceptable tales. A personal deity is praised in the Itihaasa and Puranas. Crowning Temples and Theism. The Puranas emphasised the benefits of visiting major pilgrimage centres like Mathura and Varanasi. This prompted the temple's establishment. In reality, the Puranas and other scriptures of the time identify various pilgrimage sites (tirthas) that drew followers because visiting them ensured merit. The deity's temple became a site of devotion, drawing worshipers away from home to a public institution. The Gupta era saw the first temples built. It shaped the
conventional Indian temple building styles. The temple sculptures depicted Rama and Krishna from the Epic and Purana legends. The Deogarh temple has excellent examples. Heirs to both Shaivism and Vaishnavism, the Guptas The Gupta kings' personal religion was Vaishnavism, which led to the development of several notable Vaishnava centres and Vaishnava sculptures. Royal sponsorship of Shaivism appears to have superseded Vaishnavism in northern India in the 6th and 7th century CE. Among its disciples were Mihirakula, Yashodharman, Sasanka, and Harsha. Inscriptions and literary works like those of Varahamihira, Bana, and Hiuen Tsang commonly reference Pashupata or Shaiva acharyas. North Indian Religions Spreading South
Buddhism, Jainism, and Brahmanism all moved south. In addition to the Vedic Yajna worship, the Brahmanas imported Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The rulers favoured Vedic ceremonies because they gave them ceremonial prestige. Theistic cults grew in popularity. However, royal patrons who supported Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and related branches knew that devotional theistic cults were finally stronger than any other religious force in the south. Some early Chalukyan monarchs of Vatapi Others, the Pasupata cult. The magnificent Badami bas-reliefs attest to the prominence of theistic cults in the 6th-7th century CE. Mahabalipuram boasts monolithic rathas (chariots) and various bas-reliefs showing the Pallavas of Kanchi patronised both theistic cults. By brahmana villages and temple-centers, the presentation of the Epics and Puranas was institutionalised through generous land-grants. So Bhakti became popular. The Brahmanas' transformation of older religious forms into temple-centered theistic culture was mirrored in the south.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN SOUTH INDIA
The final form of theistic Bhakti was influenced by Tamil devotionalism. In this devotionalism, ecstatic tribal cults (like VelanVeriyadal) merged with northern theistic schools. This cross pollination began at Tiruppati and Kalahasti, the northern entrance of Tamilland. Then it spread from Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital, to Madurai, the Pandyan capital. The TiruMuruguArruppadai is the first evidence of this cross pollination. This Tamil devotionalism became a huge movement when it was applied to Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Then, the Tamil Bhakti movement was marked by ardent devotion to the god and strong militancy against the rising popularity of heterodox cults among the people. This movement was led by renowned poet-saints who travelled the nation extensively in the 6th century CE. They sung songs, danced, and argued with heretical cults. The Shaiva saints are called Nayannars, while the Vaishnava saints are Alvars. This enormous religious surge peaked in the early seventh century and was mostly triumphed in the two centuries that followed. This period's saints' songs express open hostility for Buddhists and Jainas. As a result, public discussions, miraculous competitions, and ordeals to prove the theories' reality were commonplace. Other factors contributed to the hymnal saints' appeal. Unlike the Brahmanas who spread Hinduism through arcane doctrines and Sanskrit, the hymnal saints sung in simple Tamil. Their Bhakti was not for a distant deity, but for
and Chandali are two names for Shakti (a goddess of the Chandalas). Various tribal deities, as well as many magical ceremonies and a new type of animal sacrifice, were integrated into higher cults by the end of the Gupta period. During the early mediaeval period, all of these things grew in prominence. Tantrism first appeared as a religious movement in the sixth century CE, and by the ninth century, it had grown into a powerful force (You will be reading about Tantrism in detail in Unit 16). Heterodox religions and Tantrism Buddhism, Jainism, and Brahmana theology were all influenced by Tantrism. Early Buddhism and Jainism made every effort to prevent Tantric traditions from infiltrating their own cults. Buddhism and Jainism started a deliberate fight against the cult of image worship, rituals, and sacrifices as being destructive to all morality from the beginning of their respective histories. For nirvana to be attained, they emphasised soul purity (salvation). By incorporating Tantric rituals, Mahayanism is supposed to have evolved into Mantrayanism or Vajrayanism in Andhra Pradesh. Since the 3rd century CE, several Tantric works have originated from Andhra and Kalinga, spreading to Vanga and Magadha, where Nalanda grew into a centre of Tantric study during the Palas' reign. The Vajrayana Tantric literature is so enormous that just a small portion of it is available in Tibetan. In the early years of the Common Era, Jainism developed idol worship and ceremonies. Puranas and other texts said that Adinatha followers could defeat their foes, as well as fend off illnesses and bad spirits. Tantrism penetrated Jainism on a large scale, just as it did other religions, throughout the early mediaeval period. As a result, Jainism created a pantheon of Yakshas and Yakshis (the Tirthankaras' attendant demi-gods and goddesses) and a variety of mantras (magical formulas) to appease them. The cult of Yakshis like Padmavati Ambika, Siddhayika, and Jvalamalini was exalted in several Jaina Tantric scriptures, which included aspects of magic and wonder. The Yakshis were said to confer superhuman abilities on anyone who worshipped them. In early mediaeval Karnataka, the Jaina Yapaniya sect was the leading proponent of Tantric worship.
CULTURE IN THE POST-GUPTA PERIOD
The post-Gupta period saw remarkable achievements in the realms of art, architecture, literature, and poetry. As briefly discussed in Unit 2, the beginnings of temple construction may be traced back to the Gupta dynasty. We have evidence of a plethora of temple construction in both north and south India dating back to the post-Gupta period. The temples' size and splendour increased dramatically. Many architectural aspects, such as ground layouts, were derived from older architectural styles. The flat roof has been replaced with a tall central tower known as a shikhara, and lesser shikharas may be seen over minor shrines that surround the main shrine. Puranic Hinduism, as depicted in Puranic literature, frequently shows a major deity, such as Vishnu or Devi, accompanied by a slew of attendant deities, as seen in temple complexes dedicated to them. As an added element, the shikhara allowed for a lot of innovation in terms of ornamentation. They were intricately carved and embellished with sculptures. Another difference from the Gupta period was the increase in temple size, which went from modest shrines to massive constructions.
These temple structures started to fulfil a variety of purposes. For example, as represented in numerous sculptural panels of these temples, they were connected with kings' coronation and procession events. The temple also became a symbol of royal authority, thus rulers commissioned the construction of massive temple constructions to demonstrate their dominance. Second, like a stupa, complete mathas (counterparts of Buddhist sanghas) were now linked to the temple, and it became a centre of religious study, with professional narrators reciting Puranas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, as well as other writings. Sanskrit continues to be favoured in the sphere of literature. In reality, classical Sanskrit reached its pinnacle during the post-Gupta period. This period produced well-known poets like Bharavi, Kumaradass, and Dandin, as well as outstanding dramatists like Vishakhadatta. In this time, new fields of study such as distinct schools of philosophy such as Mimamsa and Nyaaya emerged, along with revived interest in other branches of knowledge like as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. King Harsha was a passionate connoisseur and supporter of education. He was a poet, dramatist, and playwright in his own right. Harshacharita (Harsha's biography) and Kadambari were written by his court poet Banabhatta. Poets, dramatists, philosophers, and artists from all over the world flocked to his court. He is reported to have called the illustrious Kanauj Assembly, which drew a large number of scholarly academics.
The production of Vamshanuvalis, or genealogical lists of kings and dynasties, is an important contribution of current Puranic literature, which may be seen in the framework of the Iitihaasa- Purana tradition. Those who argue and claim that ancient Indians lacked a sense of history should be silenced by this. The post-Gupta kingdoms began creating their own history, as shown by monarchs' inscriptions, biographies (charitas), and chronicles, among other sources. The Harshacharita, for example, recounts Harsha's ascension to the throne, while Sandhyakara-Rama- charita Nandin's recounts Pala monarch Ramapala's defeat of a mutiny by the Kaivartas and reassertion of his control. The books that began to be dated in periods, such as the Harsha era of 606, are another example of people's historical consciousness at this time. The start of these periods was linked to a monarch or dynasty, but they were determined using calendrical traditions or astronomical observations, revealing the historical significance of time recognised by the people of the time.
Polity Religion AND Culture IN THE POST Gupta Period
Course: Ancient India (HSB654)
University: Aligarh Muslim University
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