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English Notes - vdssssssss
BA LLB (HONS.)
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UNIT- I: COMMUNICATION SKILLS
USAGE OF A DICTIONARY- IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)
Question: How is International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) relevant in the usage
of Dictionary? Illustrate with a few examples from existing sound system in
English language. (2016)
Or
Discuss the significance of International Phonetic Alphabet with the help of
existing sounds in English language. (2016-Repeat Exam)
Or
How does International Phonetic Alphabet help in learning the English
Language? Discuss with the help of existing sounds in English language. (2015)
Or
Why phoneticians have evolved an alphabet called the International Phonetic
Alphabet? Discuss with the help of existing sounds in English Language. (2014)
(2013)
Answer: We need to know IPA for its usage in learning a language. The IPA is
used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words. The IPA often been
used as a basis for creating new writing system and even for creating languages
that are unwritten.
The IPA is used in some foreign language textbooks and phrase to transcribe to
the sounds of languages which are written non-alphabetic. It is also used by
non-native speakers of English to standardize their own English language.
In the learning and understanding of IPA symbols and sounds are focused to
understand the structure of language.
Minimal constructive units of sound which is responsible for the change of
meaning is called Phonemes. Whereas a sound may have its physical realization
in a different manner in more than one environment. These physical assertions
of sounds are called allophones.
Example-
- Pot /ph)t>/
- Top /th)t> /
Phonemes
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
Diphthongs
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
Transcription
It is a process where representation of existing sound in a word or words
through symbols provided by IPA is done.
Two most commonly observed patterns are:
- Phonemic Transcription
- Allophonic Transcription
Syllable
Syllable is the next higher unit of sound made up of one or more than one
speech sound and there can be either vowels or consonants. The vowel
component is essential for the structure of a syllable.
➢ No. of vowels = No. of syllable
Example:
Phonemic Transcription
1) CCCV:
2) VC:
3) CV:
4) CVC:
5) CCV:
6) CCCV:
7) CCCVC:
8) CCCVCC:
9) CCCVCCC:
10) VCCCC:
11) CCVVVVC:
12) CCVCCC:
13) CCVCC:
14) CVCC:
15) VCC:
9)
10)
Transcribe to show the structure of the Syllable
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Question: Do you agree that in its final form, communication is a manifestation
of the personalities of both the sender and the receiver? Discuss with special
reference to barriers of communication. (2017)
Or
Which of the models developed with the passage of time, best illustrates the
process of communication? Supplement your answer with a note on Barriers to
Communication. (2016)
Or
Discuss and display a graphical study on the types of communication. (2013)
Answer: Communication is characterized by speed, efficiency and the ability to hammer physical or geographical limitation and therefore it is more than swapping/ messaging information and is inclusive of the use of all our senses. Therefore, the ingredients to communication as a process must include: (i) At least two persons (Speaker-Receiver, Interlocutors, Addresser- Addressee) (ii) The topic that is the content of the message, the channel, the medium, the code and the form the setting - social and physical. (iii) Communicative feedbacks
Role of Decoder
The process of decoding by the addressee or by the receiver is an active one, it is this ingredient that provides potential to the language for the meaning – making process on basis of his/her background knowledge, personal attributes, knowledge of the subject or topic, addresser – addressee relationship, knowledge of the code, physical & social content etc.
Emotive function of language
To derive the inner state and emotion of language.
Directive function
As the term suggests, language is used to direct a person to do something and he acts accordingly. In legal world it is known as 8Speech Act9 and is very important in law of contracts. It seeks to affect the behavior of others.
Background knowledge and shared assumption may question the validity of the chosen expression and therefore a professional should be properly tuned with it, otherwise it will be a barrier. There should be flexibility of in questioning background knowledge and shared assumptions to prevent destructive feedbacks. There should be rather fitting to the communication.
Culture-Specific Communication
One must be aware about the culture of the receivers to put forth communication in a batter way. Since culture provides several paralinguistic features to the language of a person. Sound-based understanding of language can be barrier to communication. A standard pronunciation of a particular language is necessary for a better communication. If a particular language is not twist with its proper pronunciation, intonation, accent or stress, it will somewhere impede communication when we talk about professional communication.
Physical Environment
Environment disturbance and physical distance can also impede communication. Various features like noise, distance etc. act as disturbance to the communication.
Affective factors
Anxiety, fear, attitude, motivation, beliefs, values, lack of mutual trust, lack of time, lack of attention, pressure of work and personal rivalries can also impede communication.
Sender-Oriented Barriers
- Groping for the right message
- Superior attitude
- Lack of Collaborative effort (8I9 attitude instead of 8leading9 attitude)
- Lack of language skills
- Mental Blocking
- Bye-passing: Inability to read the intent behind the words.
- Frame of references
- Distraction
- Over and under communication
- Loss in-pact (Incomplete information)
Receiver-Oriented Barriers
Mental turbulence
Ineffective grasp of message or Partial grasp of topic
Difference in reception and comprehension
Distancing from speaker
Misunderstanding
Biased listening
Lack of provision of correct feedback
Principles of Co-operative Behaviour
Philosopher Grice has described four important maxims based on principles of co-operative behaviour in order to characterized professional communication. (i) Maxim of Quantity Make your contribution just informative as per the requirement. (ii) Maxim of Quality Authenticate the information and make your contribution which is true. (iii) Maxim of Relation Make your contribution related to the communication. Do not much above the head, nor below the foot. (iv) Maxim of Manner Avoiding all kinds of obscurity and ambiguity.
- Professional communication is more than a series of exchanges which are initiated and interpreted according to intuitively understood and socially acquired rules & norms that stands for certain language equations which become the basis structural unit in defining any speech event.
1) Adjacency Pairs
One way in which meanings are communicated & interpreted in professional environment is through the use of utterances produced by two successive speakers such that the second utterance is identified and related to the first as an expected follow up. The two form pairs is technically called Adjacency Pairs. Adjacency Pairs become basic structural unit in defining any speech event under the ambit of professional communication.
2) Openings and Closings
The Openings and Closings of any professional communication are/is event specific, organised & orderly, and all transition from a state of non-talk to talk or vice-versa, require channelize formal training for engineered solutions. As far as closings are concerned, important dimensions of conversational organisations depend on how the topics are selected for discussing and planning strategies towards further development and switching over to next conversation with decent and professional endings. Coherent conversation respect norms concerning, choice of topic and recognizable structure.
(ii) Horizontal Communication between people at the same level of management is called horizontal or lateral communication. (b) External In emergent situations it is a need of organisation/company or individual concerned to communicate with outside agencies (Government bodies, private bodies, newspapers, advertisers, manufactures of machinery, builders, suppliers of goods and services, clients and customers etc.)
3) Based on Relationship
(a) Formal Communication done through the chain of commands reflective in the expression chosen is technically called formal communication and it will carry organized structure. It will be planned and established by management itself. This will clearly indicate the relationship of interlocutors involved. (b) Informal Informal communication would be spontaneous in nature, reactionary, may be sometimes incomplete or may carry incorrect information. This would be indicated in change of form and language depending upon the relationship of the interlocutors. It is also known as grape-wine communication. Question: Write a note on difference between written and oral communication and where to place gestural communication? Answer: Written and Oral communication can be differentiated depending upon their forms and manner.
- The speaker has available to him/her, full range of voice quality effects (sound system) as well as facial expressions - postural and gestural system. These Paralinguistic features are denied to a writer. A writer has typographical variety at his/her disposal.
- In oral communication, the speaker being face to face with the hearer/receiver can do the following: (a) Can monitor all paralinguistic feature, (b) Match with the reactions, (c) On the spot planning of utterances, moderation of overall pattern, interruption from the interlocutors may be invited to patch up the overall command on conversational skill. (d) It is quicker, economical, with repaired options for getting immediate response or result. However, oral communication may suffer from geographical, social and cultural differences. Differences in dialects
may interfere with accent differences finally associated with corresponding paralinguistic features and body language. (e) Oral communication is less reliable. It is also not available in future and can be affected by the attitudes, personality, self-interest, beliefs values, and prejudices of the sender as well as receiver in time and circumstances of communication. Also oral communication is not suitable for lengthy messages as scientifically human mind can restored and retreat the information for a limited time period. (f) Since the writer is writing for an absent reader in far space and time, he or she may overlooked, reflect, edit without being monitored or repaired with a variety of options open to him/her for strengthening the message through the use of language tools and devices such as dictionaries, thesauruses etc. Moreover, there is no pressure on a writer and can do justice to his/her emotions and feelings without any fear of offending readers. Written communication ensures transmission of information in a uniform manner with a little risk of unauthorized alteration of the message. It serves for a permanent record for future references. (g) Written communication can be repeated at regular intervals, however it is time consuming, expensive and rigid.
- A professional must IMPRESS upon its readers or hearers or receivers.
IMPRESS: Idea, Message, Pose, Receiver, Empathy, Sender,
Security
Idea: Idea pertains to the invocation, germination or incubation of an idea in the mind of the speaker. This need to be identified and sequentially arranged. Message: It should be concrete and in a form that is acceptable and comprehensible. Pose: Sound and Symbols Receiver: He has to be good decoder as well. Empathy: Exactly thinking and developing a feeling like your receiver. Getting into the shoes of receiver, that is a humane approach. Sender: Sender has to encoder. Security: Security check for any discrepancies.
Specification
Specification is about developing an idea or topic from general to the particular. Brief specification are found within the single sentences with the help of hyphen (-) as a means of giving substance to an abstraction(s). While specification resembles illustrations, it differs in an important way in the sense that an illustration is one of several possible cases, whereas specification covers all the cases. 2. Techniques that involve another subject: Whether secondary or of equal importance, introduced for the purposes of analogy.
Analogy
As part of analogy, a subject of secondary importance which may be of quite a different in nature is used for the purposes of elaborating primary subject.
Causal Relationship Technique
Why something happened or why it is true or false are the basis of casual relationship behind numerous strategies for developing a topic and simplest way is keep on answering why. Development by reasons may be subtle but it helps a writer in leaving the casual relationship implicit and one is able to establish connection in the sub-structures of the topic however not spelled out.
Effect Technique
Effects or consequences are handled much in the same way as reasons that support the elaboration of the topic. In facts, it is suggested to use both the techniques together for establishing intimate connection in the sub-structures of ideas.
- Techniques that explore ramifications of the topic more fully and completely with the help of defining the topic itself based on its root level or looking into its causes and effects.
Definition
In its most basic sense, it will help us to set limits and boundaries but the problem of defining is further complicated by the fact that these different kinds of definition serving different purposes, use different means also. 1) Nominal Definition: It is a definition of word or words or phrase communicated through dictionary. 2) Real Definition: Real definition talks about definition of the entity (Object, concept, emotion or whatever that word signifies)
Depending upon purposes there can be following definitions: 1) Consensual Definition: It is an elaboration of how people commonly use a word or how they understand and in what way. 2) Stipulative Definition: A special meaning given to a word or an entity for a particular purpose. 3) Legislative Definition: This definition helps an author to put forward as what the word ought to mean. The various techniques for developing a definition can be through:
- Defining by genus and species
- Defining by synonyms
- Defining by illustrations
- Defining by metaphor and simile
- Defining by negatives
- Defining by etymology
- Defining by semantics
- Defining by history
- Hypothetical Definitions
- Paired or field definition (empirical research)
Analysis Technique
In abroad sense, all kinds of paragraphs can be brought to exposition in an analytical manner that is developing a topic by distinguishing its component and then discussing each in turn. Analysis begins with the general and works into particulars, whereas classification starts with particulars and sorts them into different categories.
Qualification Technique
It is often necessary to admit what you are asserting is not always true and always applicable, doing so is called qualification. Qualification always risks blurring your facts or focus but the art is to qualify exaggeration without losing the track. You can qualify with the help of: 1) Sub-ordinate clauses 2) By using qualifying words and phrases ( Example: although, few, big time, in general etc.) 3) Qualification can be expressed in a separate sentence and then substituted words may be used to bring stress on the obviousness of the main topic.
Bacon9s style is also systematic, moving logically from point to point. He is considered one of the early empiricists, basing his ideas on observation from the real life, not received truths. Finally, Bacon9s essays mix the Greek and Latin phrases, an educated person would be familiar with alongside homey images of everyday life such as comparing natural abilities to plants. His essays were accessible to both highly and moderately educated people of his time.
Of Studies
8Of Studies9 is illustrative of the purpose, the use and the abuse of studies. It is an means of wisdom teaching and didactism, written in epigrammatic style. Bacon9s essays are defined under impersonal style morses with wit obsenation and a lot of knowledge one experience shared by him. The essay also reflects Bacon9s method of moral counselling which he has categorically explained as the outcome of the studies. - Privatiness and retiring - Disposition of business - Plot apart from plans or ideas pertains to acclaims of life for getting expertise & experience. Bacon9s essay 8Of Studies9 is part of The Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral, of Francis Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Alban (London, 1625) Bacon argues that studies 8serve for Delight, for Ornament, and for Ability.= For delight, Bacon means one9s personal, private education, studies for ornament he means in conversation between and among others, which Bacon labels as discourse and studies for ability lead one to judgment in business and related pursuits. From Bacon9s perspective, men with worldly experience can carry out plans and understand particular circumstances, but men who study are better able to understand important political matters and know how to deal with the problem according to their severity. At the same time Bacon encourages studies, he warns that 1) Too much studying leads to laziness 2) If one uses one9s knowledge too often in conversation with others, then one is showing off 3) To be guided solely by one9s studies one becomes a scholar rather than practical man. Bacon9s argument about the value of studies is that moderation is the key to using studies appropriately: studies are wonderful only if influenced by
experience because a person9s natural abilities are enhanced by studies, but studies without experience lead to confusion in dealing with the outside world. According to Bacon, dishonest men condemn education; stupid men admire education but wise men use education as their real world experience dictates. He warns the educated man not to use his education to argument unnecessarily with people, not to assume that education always leads to the correct behaviour or understanding; not use education merely to focus on conversation with others. Rather Bacon argues that education (some books) should be read but their advice ignored; other books ignored completely, and a few books are to be <Chewed and Digested= that is understood perfectly and used to guide behaviour. In addition, Bacon advises that some books can be read by others who take notes and the notes can substitute for reading an entire book, but these books should not be those that cover important subjects. Bacon returns to addressing the effects of reading, conversation, and writing: reading creates a well-rounded man; conversation makes a man think quickly and writing by which Bacon usually means argument essay, makes a man capable of thinking with logic and reason. Further Bacon argues if a man doesn9t write very much, he has to have a good memory to compensate for what he doesn9t write. If he doesn9t exercise the art of conversation, he needs to have a quick wit and if he doesn9t read very much, he has to be able <to fake it=, to pretend that he knows more than he does. Bacon argues that History makes men wise, poetry makes men clever, mathematics makes men intellectually sharp and logic & rhetoric make men skilled in argument. Further, Bacon believes that there is no problem in thinking that cannot be fixed by the appropriate study just as the right physical exercise cure physical illnesses. Every disorder of the mind has a cure for example if a man cannot use one set of facts to prove the truth of an unrelated set of facts, Bacon advises the study of law.
EV Lucas
Edward Verrall Lucas was an English humorist, essayist, playwright, biographer, poet, novelist, short story teller and editor. His work on Charles Lamb is one the most remarkable. Lucas has carved a picturesque description of even the minutest detail of the issue in question and therefore the issue becomes crystal clear and we as readers fell well informed. Lucas is more of an artist of human psyche. His base prepares him as a writer who has taken the reader in flights of fear, fantasy but the important thing is it is fluent style through a deep understanding of technical
English Notes - vdssssssss
Course: BA LLB (HONS.)
University: Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University
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