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BPCC-101 Block-1-U1,U2
introduction to psychology (BPCC 101)
Indira Gandhi National Open University
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BPCC-
School of Social Sciences
Indira Gandhi National Open University
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
June, 2019 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019 ISBN: All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or visit our website: ignou.ac Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School of Social Sciences. Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.-II, Okhla, New Delhi Printed at :
Print Production
Mr. Manjit Singh Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Rtd. Professor Emeritus, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
Prof. Karuna Nidhi, Professor and Head Department of Psychology, University of Madras Chepauk, Chennai
Dr. S. P. K. Jena Associate Professor Dept. of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi.
Dr. Anita Kant Associate Professor, Vivekananda College (University of Delhi), Vivek Vihar, Delhi.
Dr. Ashima Nehra Assistant Professor Dept. of Neuro Psychology, AIIMS, Delhi
Professor Suhas Shetgovekar Professor, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
Prof. Swati Patra Professor, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
Dr. Monika Misra Asst. Professor, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
Dr. Smita Gupta Asst. Professor, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Maidangarhi, Delhi.
COURSE COORDINATOR: Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology SOSS, IGNOU
GENERAL EDITOR’S: Dr. Smita Gupta and Dr. Arti Singh, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU
EDITOR (CONTENT FORMAT AND LANGUAGE:
Unit Writer
Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1) Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1)
Dr Arti Singh, Consultant SOSS, IGNOU
Dr Arti Singh, Consultant SOSS,IGNOU
Dr Arti Singh, Consultant, SOSS, IGNOU
Dr Arti Singh, Consultant, SOSS, IGNOU
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar SOSS, IGNOU Adapted from BPCL-007 and BPCL-
Block Name Block 1 Introduction to psychology Unit 1 Origin of Psychology
Unit 2 Nature and Scope of Psychology
Block 2 Perception Unit 3 Unit 1 Perception: Meaning, Laws, Perceptual Constancies and Factors Affecting Perception. Unit 4 Perception: Types and Errors of Perception Block 3 Thinking and language Unit 5 Thinking and Language Block 4 Learning and Memory Unit 6 Learning Unit 7 Memory Block 5 Motivation and Emotion Unit 8 Motivation Unit 9 Emotion Brief Guide to Practicum on BPCC- General Psychology
COURSE PREPARATION TEAM
COURSE INTRODUCTION
The Course of Introduction to Psychology is one of the courses of First Semester of BA (Honours) Psychology. The attempt of this course is to explain you the meaning and concept of psychology. It also explains the human behavior and their cognitive processes; biological processes and affective processes that make them behave differently.
The first block of this course is Introduction to psychology which discusses the origin of the field of psychology and the emergence of psychology as an independent Discipline in the world including India. The second block of this course is- Perception which explains the steps and process of perception. It also explains how our perception is influenced by other factors.
The third block of this course is- Thinking and language which deals with the process of thinking and concept of creativity. The fourth block of this course is- Learning and Memory which will deal with the definition, process, stages and theories of learning and memory. In the last block of Motivation and Emotion, you will be introduced with the concept and theories related to motivation and emotion.
Block 1
Introduction to Psychology
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Origin of Psychology
UNIT 1 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY*
Content
1 Introduction
1 Objectives
1 Definition of Psychology
1.2 Early Definitions 1.2 Current Definitions 1.2 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour
1 Historical Development of Psychology
1 Psychology: As a Science
1.4 Characteristics of Science
1 Let Us Sum Up
1 Unit End Questions
1 Glossary
1 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1 References and Suggested Readings
1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our lives. The field of psychology deals with behavioural aspects of human beings and that is probably the reason why everyone is interested to know about psychology. On the other hand, there are many misconceptions about psychology also. Many people think that psychology deals with dealing of abnormal people only. Some others feel that psychologists can read your mind just by looking at you or your face/forehead. They tend to equate psychologists with astrologers, gemologists, numerologists, palmists or graphologists, who claim to solve your problems of life and predict your future. You might have heard the terms ‘psychology’, ‘psychological’, ‘mental’ etc., but do you know what is the meaning of psychology and how did it evolve? Is psychology a ‘science’ or ‘art’? What is science and what are its characteristics? What is the subject matter of psychology? In this chapter you will find answer to these and many more such questions. By studying psychology, you will be able to understand what psychology is and what it is not. This unit introduces the subject of psychology.
1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Define psychology; Describe the historical background and perspectives of psychology; Illustrate the methods and subfields of psychology; and Delineate the researches of psychology in Indian context.
- Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1)
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Introduction To Psychology
1 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has been defined in a number of ways by various authors. Psychologists have been debating on whether psychology should focus on “mind”, “consciousness” or “behaviour”. Let us look at how the definitions of psychology have come a long way over the past years.
1.2 Early Definitions
Earlier, psychology was part of Philosophy. Ancient philosophers were interested in the study of the soul. Thus, it was first defined in terms of ‘the science of soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and comprehensive meanings, it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely, in the middle ages. There were questions regarding the physical existence, weight, and volume of soul.
Dandapani (2004) states that “people were rather naïve to believe in esoteric terms such as Soul, Mind and Consciousness. It was believed, and rightly so, that every human being is endowed with a soul that would remain sublime at all times. To a philosopher soul is the firm foundation upon which ethical values are erected. Realisation of one’s soul was considered the chief mission of life. Definition of Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable primarily because no convincing proof or evidence of the precise nature of soul was furnished. It was discarded because of its METAPHYSICAL nature. It was found inadequate to satisfy the canons of science;.......”.
Thus, this definition was not accepted by psychologists. Next, psychology was defined in terms of ‘the science of mind’, by some ancient Greek philosophers. According to them, psychology was held as a branch of mental philosophy. Since this definition does not include overt behaviour of human beings and mind cannot be measured directly, this definition was also dropped by psychologists.
Later, psychology was defined as ‘the science of consciousness’. According to Bagga & Singh (1990), at one time during the history of Psychology, it was felt that the main business of Psychology was with the conscious experience.
Consciousness makes us conscious or aware of the situation or a thing around us. This definition too is now obsolete and it has been rejected due to the following reasons:
Consciousness cannot be studied objectively as it is more personal and subjective. Second objection came from the fast developing branch of the abnormal psychology which brought the study of unconscious part of our mind within the province of Psychology. The term consciousness does not include animal or human behaviour.
The term consciousness also was supposed to have a philosophical-tinge and not accepted by the modern scientific minded psychologists. Finally, the modern era has defined Psychology as ‘a science of behaviour.’ In the early decades of twentieth century, Watson, the father of the school of ‘Behaviourism’, defined psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’. According to Morgan et al. (1986), Watson rejected mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour – the observable (or potentially observable)
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Introduction To Psychology behaviour is everything or anything that a human being or animal does that can
be observed in some way. In other words, behaviour includes all actions and responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly. Behaviour not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal vents, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through what people say (vocal behaviour) and how they react to different problems and situations.
We will now consider some of the general characteristics of human behaviour, as described by Parameswaran & Beena (1988, 2002). These are:
Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors such as biological, cultural, social, environmental, past experience, motivational, emotional, cognitive (e. feelings, emotions, motivation, thoughts) etc.
Behaviour varies in complexity Behaviour can be as simple as picking a pen, waving a friend or reflex responses like sneezing etc. Some other behaviours include certain skills which become a habit over a period such as playing guitar, cycling etc. Yet some other behaviours involve complex activities like repairing a car. Activities such as landing on the moon, flying a fighter plane, rock climbing etc. are some of the examples of highly complex behaviour.
The factors influencing behaviour are of different kinds. Behaviour is influenced by two large sets of factors:
i) Those belonging to the individual; and ii) Those belonging to the environment.
Factors pertaining to an individual can be categorized under physiological (biological needs such as hunger, thirst etc.) and psychological ( ideas, opinions, attitudes etc.).
The environmental factors include physical surroundings, family and friends, the larger society and even the overall cultural and social background.
Individual differences Behaviour also varies from one person to the other as well as from one group of people to the other group of people. People differ in their physiological and bodily conditions, in their past experiences, in their abilities, in their background etc. It is therefore, natural that if ten people are put in same situation, each person’s behaviour differs from that of others, in some respects or in some degrees.
Behaviour also shows similarities Though behaviour differs from person to person but this does not mean that all people differ from all others, at all times, and in all situations. There is also a considerable degree of similarity in behaviour among people. For instance, if a particle of dust falls into a person’s eye, he/she tries to remove it. This type of behaviour is universally found.
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Behaviour is always purposeful and goal directive Origin of Psychology Human behaviour is always purposeful and one’s actions are always directed towards some goal or the other. A boy sitting and studying suddenly gets up and takes a glass of water. Here, the goal is to have a glass of water and the purpose is to quench his thirst. On the other hand, a boy is sitting and studying and feels cold. He gets up and switches off the fan. Here the goal is to switch off the fan and the purpose is to avoid the discomfort of cold. So, all our behaviours can be categorized under:
i) Approach behaviour (Positive goal directed) or ii) Avoidance behaviour (Negative goal avoidance)
Behaviour is changeable to a large extent It was mentioned earlier that a number of factors influence behaviour. In view of this, it is possible to change behaviour by modifying these factors. It is this changeability which enables a bad man to become a good man and a good man to become a bad man. It is again this very characteristic which helps people to adjust to new surroundings. These changes are the results of one’s practice or experiences (learning).
Behaviour also shows stability Though emphasis has been laid on the possible changes in behaviour, it must be mentioned that life is not always full of all sorts of changes. While behaviour changes, at the same time there is also a certain stability in behaviour. It does not change with every change in the environment nor do all forms of behaviour change. Human behaviour shows a lot of stability. For instance, you may still find your grandmother preferring old ideas and old ways of life, though she is living in an ultra modern society.
Behaviour is integrated As already mentioned, behaviour is influenced by a number of factors and a variety of purposes. Every human being has physiological, psychological, personal and social purposes. He/she has also been the subject of different learning experiences. In spite of all this, behaviour always shows an order and a hierarchy of purposes. Every individual behaves as a total person and this process of the organisation of different purposes, different learnings and different influencing factors results in an integration of behaviour.
Thus, an individual put in different situations, still shows certain characteristic ways and styles of behaviour which help us to understand and predict his/her behaviour. We often say, Ram is a pleasant person. Gobind is an unpleasant person, Krishna is a sociable person and so on. Psychologists use the term Personality to describe this process of integration. The greater the degree of integration in a person’s behaviour, the more effective her/his behaviour is likely to be. It can therefore be appreciated that behaviour is a complex phenomenon and studying behaviour is not an easy task.
1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means
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1.4 Characteristics of Science Origin of Psychology
The observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict new events as accurately as possible. Psychology studies behaviour in the same way as the other sciences study their subject matter and therefore shares a number of features with them. In common with other sciences, psychology, as a science, has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan et al. (1986).
Empirical observation Like other disciplines of science, the discipline of psychology, rests on experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief.
Systematic approach and theory Data from observations and experiments are essential to science in order “to make some sense” in helping us to understand events. The scientist tries to find a limited number of principles which will summarize the data economically. Like other scientific theories, psychology also follows a systematic procedure of observation, data collection, analysis and interpretation.
Measurement Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, defined as assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Physics is ranked highest (most scientific) among the sciences as it has developed the most precise measurements.
Definition of terms Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The procedure in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable behaviour (operational definition). When we define a concept operationally, we define it in terms of measurable and observable operations. For example, the concepts of length, height in physics, and concepts like intelligence, motivation, personality in psychology are defined in terms of observable operations, which can be performed to measure them. However, psychology cannot measure many behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, beauty etc. as these cannot be defined operationally. The above characteristics are common to all sciences including psychology. However, psychology is a different type of science (Behavioural science). In physics or chemistry, researchers investigate processes and events which remain stable and constant to a large extent. This makes it possible to measure and predict with a reasonable degree of accuracy. But it is not the case with human behaviour, which is highly complex, not easily controllable, and appears to be much more unpredictable than the reactions of physical and chemical substances. Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man himself. The methods used in psychological research include observation, interviews, psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical analysis.
Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry, the ‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology,
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Introduction To Psychology economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc. (Rush, 1972).
The first group of sciences are the ‘Physical Sciences’, which include subjects like physics, chemistry etc. Next is the ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include such subjects as biology, botany, zoology etc. The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is the skill or knack for doing things which is acquired by study, practice and special experience. Since principles and laws of psychology are applied to solve human problems in a number of situation (families, schools, organisations, environment) as well as treating behaviour disorders and emotional problems, it is also an art.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-II)
State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
The ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include subjects such as anthropology, economics, education, history, linguistics, sociology etc. .......................
Like other disciplines of science, the discipline of psychology, rests on experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief. .......................
The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and phenomena of the material world. .......................
Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour........................
Psychology is categorized under the physical sciences group. .....................
1 LET US SUM UP
It can be summed up from the above discussion that the psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline from philosophy. In this unit, the term ‘Psychology’ was defined and the nature as well as its historical development was also discussed. Lastly, characteristics of psychology as a science were also discussed in this unit.
1 UNIT END QUESTIONS
- Discuss the origin and evolution of psychology.
- Enumerate the nature and characteristics of behaviour.
- Describe the historical development of psychology.
- Describe the characteristics of science.
- Can we consider psychology as science? Support your answer with appropriate justifications.
1 GLOSSARY
Behaviour : Observable actions and responses of human beings and animals. Behaviour also includes not so directly observable activities, such as, inner mental (cognitive) processes (e. feelings and thoughts) as long as they can be observed and measured in a systematic way.
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Introduction To Psychology Bolles, R. (1993). The Story of Psychology. Portland:Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
Ciccarelli, S.& Meyer, G.(2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson Education, Inc.
Clark, K. E. & Miller, G. A. (eds.) (1970). Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Dandapani, S. (2004). General Psychology. Hyderabad (India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Das,J.(19980. The Working Mind: An Introduction to Psychology, New Delhi, Sage Publication
Eysenck, M.(2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. Psychology Press.
Feldman, R.(2004). Understanding Psychology (6th edition), New Delhi (India): Tata McGraw Hill.
Hilgard, E. R., Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R. (1975). Introduction to Psychology (6th edition). New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. N.:Holt.
Lahey, Benjamin B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction. New Delhi; Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
Nairne, J. (2003). Psychology: The Adaptive Mind (3rd edition). USA:Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E. & Beena, C. (1988). Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Parameswaran, E. & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad (India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Rathus, S. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. (9th edition). Canada: Wadsworth.
Rush, Harold M.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A perspective and an overview. In Fred Luthans (Ed.). Contemporary readings in organisational behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Schick, T. & Vaughn, L.(2001). How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for a new age. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tavris,C. & Warde,C. (1997). Psychology in Perspective (2nd Ed). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
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Woodworth, R. S. (1948). Contemporary Schools of Psychology. New York: Origin of Psychology Ronald.
Dalal, A. K. (2011). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India. Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 1: Theories and Concepts, 27.
Jain, A. K. (2005). Psychology in India. The Psychologist, 18 (4), 206-208.
Misra, G., & Paranjpe, E. A. C. (2012). Psychology in modern India. In Encyclopedia of the History of Psychological Theories (pp. 881-892). Springer US.
Singh, A. K. (1991). The Comprehensive History of Psychology. Motilal Banarsidass Publication.
Bangalore University. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from bangalore university.ac
NIMHANS. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from nimhans.kar.nic/ mhsp/default
National Seminar on Psychology in India: Past, Present and Future. Retrieved March 18, 2018, from infinityfoundation/mandala/images/ Souvenir-Internet1
History of Development of Psychology in India. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from anilpinto.blogspot/2014/04/subject-history-of-development-of.html
Mathew, V. G. (n.). A Short History of Indian Psychology. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from psychology4all/historyi.htm
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Nature and Scope of Psychology
Describe the various subfields of psychology; and Delineate the researches of psychology in Indian context.
2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed definition of psychology, its development and its nature as science. In the present unit we will extend our discussion on psychology as a subject. We will discuss different fields and sub-fields of psychology and see how they are inter-related. Further, growth of psychology as a discipline in India will be discussed.
2 PSYCHOLOGY: ITS RELATION TO OTHER
FIELDS/SCIENCES
You have already learnt from previous section that psychology as behavioural science shares common characteristics with other physical and biological sciences. All sciences have practical application to deal with human problems and improve their quality of life. Engineering and technology have developed from disciplines like physics, chemistry and mathematics and have made life easier and comfortable. Likewise, medical sciences have contributed significantly to not only fight and control/eradicate many deadly diseases, but also cure/prevent many diseases. Similarly, psychologists have also developed a number of techniques to help people lead a happier life by promoting/enhancing their psychological health. Psychologists also care and help in prevention of various psychological and emotional problems (behaviour disorders). Sometimes, the world’s problems such as climatic change, pollution, aftermath of natural disaster, manmade disasters etc. are so widespread and serious that no one or two sciences can solve such problems. A group of scientists from different fields have to, therefore, come together and jointly handle such problems. This is known as ‘transactionalism’ (Rush,1972). Due to the interaction of the results of different disciplines, new fields of knowledge have emerged. Examples of such disciplines are: biophysics, biochemistry, geophysics etc.
Over the years of development of one particular science, or sometimes more than one discipline, have influenced the developments in other sciences. Thus, no particular field of science can be completely isolated from other fields of science, and different fields of scientific knowledge are quite closely related. It is clear that though psychology has emerged as an independent field of scientific enquiry, nevertheless it has very close relationship with other sciences. In fact, the very emergence of psychology as a science, was possible because of developments in other sciences like genetics, physiology, neurology, medicine, physics, chemistry, cybernetics and other sciences. Its methods of enquiry and analysis as well as application have all been influenced by developments in other subject areas. Of course, development in psychology have in turn, influenced the growth and development of other disciplines as well like sociology, anthropology, economics, political science, management etc. It is obvious that even though we can think of different fields of scientific knowledge, the fact is that these fields depend for their expansion on the findings of other disciplines. Perhaps, this will become clearer if we can examine the relationship of psychology with certain other sciences. For this purpose, we may group the other sciences in to the following categories: biological sciences, physical sciences, medical sciences and social sciences (Parameswaran & Beena, 2002).
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Introduction To Psychology
2 NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
As mentioned to you earlier that psychology is a science which studies human behavior with reference to context as well as other individuals. With the help of observation and learning, the discipline tries to find out the causes of a particular behavior shown by an individual in a specific situation. Broadly, all sciences have two branches. One, the basic or academic branch and the other, applied. The basic or academic branch is the result of an academic curiosity or a question e. Newton asked “Why does the apple fall on the ground?” which gave rise to the theory of ‘gravity’. On the other hand, the applied branch deals with solving problem by applying inputs from the basic/academic branch. However, this distinction is not rigid and beyond a point, both the branch converge. e. many theories of basic branch are applied, or have potential to be applied, to solve problems. Similarly, many applied branches have come up with new or supplementary theories that have been included in the basic branch. According to Parameswaran and Beena (1988), psychology may be broadly classified into general psychology and differential psychology. The former is concerned with the investigation of generalities and similarities in behaviour, especially among the normal adults while the later has been primarily concerned with the observation, measurement and explanation of individual differences. Gradually, these two broad divisions developed into further branches or divisions of general psychology and applied psychology.
2.3 Early Divisions of Psychology
Like other sciences, psychology also started with basic branches, which were classified as: experimental and non-experimental. The experimental branch started with the research studies in the field of physiological, learning, and perception processes. Many psychologists attempt to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour and such attempts may not be directly applied to solve practical problems. They are primarily engaged in basic research, and study fundamental processes such as learning, memory, thinking, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion, by using experimental method. Thus, the experimental psychologist investigates how behaviour is modified and how people retain these modifications, the processing of information thinking, how human sensory systems work to allow people to experience what is going on around them, and the factors that urge them on and give direction to behaviour.
The non-experimental branch included personality, social, and developmental processes. However, many of these academic branches are having further sub branches, i. developmental psychology has sub-branches like child psychology, adolescence psychology and gerontology. Similarly, social psychology has an ‘applied social psychology’ branch and it has given rise to an applied field called ‘organisational psychology’. Applied fields have also led to development of many theories, e. application of theories of motivation to organisations has resulted in many work motivation theories.
2.3 Subfields of Psychology
As discussed above there are many branches of psychology, which are categorized under basic and applied branches. Many authors use the terms ‘branch’ and ‘field’ interchangeably. Area or branch seems to be broader terms which include both
BPCC-101 Block-1-U1,U2
Course: introduction to psychology (BPCC 101)
University: Indira Gandhi National Open University
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