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PLUS 1 Botany Final vijayabheri
Bsc botony (Botony)
University of Calicut
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VIJAYABHERI
MALAPPURAM DISTRICT PANCHAYATH EDUCATIONAL
PROJECT 2021-
STEP-UP
BOTANY-CLASS XI
(Higher secondary / V H S E Supporting Material)
വിദ്യാഭ്യാസപരമായി ഏറ്റവും പുറകില്‍ നിന്നിരുന്ന മലപ്പുറം ജില്ല കഴിഞ്ഞ കുറച്ചു
വർഷങ്ങള്‍ കകാണ്ടുണ്ടാക്കിയ നേനട്ടങ്ങള്‍ അഭൂതപൂർവമാണ്. എസ്. എസ്. എല്‍. സി ,
പ്ലസ്ടു , വി. എച്ച്. എസ്. ഇ ഫലത്തിക3 കാര്യത്തില്‍ മാത്രമല്ല എ പ്ലസ്സ് ലഭിച്ച
വിദ്യാർത്ഥികളുകട എണ്ണത്തിലും വിവിധ മത്സരപരീക്ഷകളിലും നമ്മള്‍ ഏകറ മുനേന്നറി.
കപാതുവിദ്യാഭ്യാസ സംരക്ഷണത്തിക3 കാര്യത്തില്‍ മറ്റു ജില്ലകള്‍ക്ക് നമ്മള്‍
മാതൃകയാണ്. മലപ്പുറം ജില്ലാ പഞ്ചായത്ത് ആവിഷ് കരിച്ചു നടപ്പിലാക്കി കകാണ്ടിരിക്കുന്ന
വിജയനേഭരി വിദ്യാഭ്യാസ പദ്ധതി , തനേBശ സ്വയംഭരണ സ്ഥാപനങ്ങളുകട ഇടകപടലുകള്‍ ,
ജനപ്രതിനിധികള്‍ , എസ്. എസ്. കക , ഡയറ്റ് , വിദ്യാഭ്യാസ ഓഫീസർമാർ ഒപ്പം എല്ലാ
നല്ല പ്രവർത്തനങ്ങള്‍ക്കും കൂകട നില്‍ക്കുന്ന അധ്യാപകർ എന്നിവരാണ് ഈ നേനട്ടങ്ങള്‍
ക്കു പിന്നില്‍.
നേനട്ടങ്ങള്‍ ആനേKാഷിക്കുന്നതിനേനാകടാപ്പം അടിയന്തിര ശ്രദ്ധ പതിനേയണ്ടുന്ന
നേമഖലകള്‍ ഇനിയും ഏകറയുണ്ട്. 10 - ാം ക്ലാസ്സില്‍ നിന്നും വിജയം നേനടി പ്ലസ്സ് 1 , വി.
എച്ച്. എസ്. ഇ ക്ലാസ്സുകളില്‍ എത്തുന്ന വിദ്യാർത്ഥികളില്‍ നകല്ലാരു ശതമാനം
വിദ്യാർത്ഥികള്‍ ഹയർ കസക്കണ്ടറി സിലബസ് പിന്തുടരുന്നതിന് ഏകറ പ്രയാസം
അനുഭവിക്കുന്നവരാണ്. നേകാവിഡ് കാരണം സ് കൂള്‍ പ്രവർത്തി ദിനങ്ങള്‍ നഷ്
ടകപ്പട്ടനേതാകട ഭൂരിപക്ഷം വിദ്യാർത്ഥികളും പഠന പ്രയാസങ്ങള്‍ അനുഭവിക്കുന്നു
ഈകയാരു പശ്ചാത്തലത്തില്‍ പ്ലസ്ടു , വി. എച്ച്. എസ്. ഇ തലത്തില്‍ വിവിധ
വിഷയങ്ങള്‍ അനായാസകരമായി പഠിക്കുന്നതിനും എല്ലാ വിദ്യാ ത്ഥികളും പ്ലസ്ടു , വി.
എച്ച്. എസ്.ഇ പരീക്ഷകളില്‍ മികച്ച വിജയം ഉറപ്പു വരുത്തുന്നതിനായി കYപ്പ് - അപ്പ് 22
എന്ന നേപരില്‍ പ്രനേത്യക കമറ്റീരിയല്‍ വിജയനേഭരി പദ്ധതിയുകട ഭാഗമായി തയ്യാറാക്കി സ്
കൂളുകളികലത്തിക്കുകയാണ്. തീർച്ചയായും ഈ കമറ്റീരിയല്‍ അധ്യാപകർക്കും
വിദ്യാർത്ഥികള്‍ക്കും ഏകറ സഹായകരമാകുകമന്ന് പ്രതീക്ഷിക്കുന്നു.
ഈ പഠനസഹായി സമയബന്ധിതമായി പൂർത്തീകരിക്കുന്നതിന് നേനതൃത്വം നല്‍
കിയ മലപ്പുറം ഡയറ്റ് , ഹയർ കസക്കണ്ടറി ജില്ലാ നേകാർഡിനേനറ്റർ / അസിY3്
നേകാർഡിനേനറ്റർ , ശില്പശാലയില്‍ പക_ടുത്ത അധ്യാപകർ എന്നിവർക്കുള്ള നന്ദിയും
കടപ്പാടും പ്രനേത്യകം അറിയിക്കുന്നു.
സ് കൂള്‍തലത്തില്‍ അനുനേയാജ്യമായ സമയം കകണ്ടത്തി രക്ഷിതാക്കളുകട സഹകര
ണനേത്താകട ഈ പഠനപ്രവർത്തനങ്ങള്‍ വിദ്യാർത്ഥികള്‍ക്ക് നല്‍കണം. അതിനായി എല്ലാ
അധ്യാപകരുകടയും സഹകരണം പ്രതീക്ഷിക്കുന്നു.
പ്രസിഡണ്ട് കbയർനേപഴ് സണ്‍ അസി: ഡയറക്ടർ ആർ.ഡി.ഡി പ്രിന്‍സിപ്പാള്‍
ജില്ലാ പഞ്ചായത്ത് ആനേരാഗ്യ വിദ്യാഭ്യാസ വി..എച്ച്. എസ് .ഇ മലപ്പുറം ഡയറ്റ്
മലപ്പുറം സ്ഥിരം സമിതി മലപ്പുറം മലപ്പുറം
Vijayabheri, Malappuram Dist. Panchayat Project
Dear students and teachers,
STEP-UP 2022 of botany has been written in accordance with the
latest syllabus framed by SCERT and NCERT for class XI by a team of
higher secondary botany teachers in Malappuram district for
Malappuram District Panchayath VIJAYABHERI PROGRAMME.
Students and teachers will definitely find it very much helpful
in understanding the various concepts. This book includes short notes,
diagrammes and main points.
It is our sincere hope that the booklet will continue to motivate
the students’ interest in botany.
With regards,
Botany Team
Malappuram
Vijayabheri, Malappuram Dist. Panchayat Project
CONTENTS
- 1 Biological Classification 5- Sl No Chapters Page No
- 2 Plant Kingdom 15-
- 3 Morphology of Flowering Plants 20-
- 4 Anatomy of Flowering Plants 30-
- 5 Cell: The Unit of Life 41-
- 6 Cell cycle and Cell Division 46-
- 7 Transport in Plants 50-
- 8 Mineral Nutrition 56-
- 9 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 60-
- 10 Respiration in plants 66-
- 11 Plant Growth and Development 76-
1. Kingdom Monera (BACTERIA)
Bacteria are the most abundant micro organisms. Bacteria occur almost everywhere. Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. They also live in extreme habitat such as hotsprings, deserts, snow & deep oceans where few other life forms can survive. Many are parasites. Bacteria are grouped under 4 categories based on their shape Coccus - Spherical
Bacillus - rod - shaped
Vibrium - comma - shaped
Spirillum - spiral
Bacterial structure is very simple but, they are complex in behaviour. Bacteria show most extensive metabolic diversity. Some bacteria are autotrophic (they synthesis their own food from inorganic substrate.) The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophic. (They do not synthesis their own food, but depend on other organism/ on dead organic matter for food).
Kingdom monera is classified into three
1. Archaebacteria
These bacteria live in extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles), & marshy areas (methanogens). Archaebacteria survive in extreme condition because they have different cell wall structure. Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals (cow, buffaloes etc.). They produce methane (biogas) from dung of these animals.
2. Eubacteria (True bacteria)
Known as true bacteria They are characterized by the presence of rigid cell wall & flagellum (if motile). Cyanobacteria, chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria are included in Eubacteria.
(i) Cyanobacteria (Photosynthetic autotrophs)
Known as Blue green algae They are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, fresh water or marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally covered by a gelatinous sheath. They often form bloom in polluted water. Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cell called heterocyst. Eg:- Nostoc & Anabaena.
(ii) Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria.
It oxidizes various inorganic substrate such as nitrite, nitrate & ammonia & use the released energy for ATP production. They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron & sulphur.
(iii) Heterotrophic bacteria
They are the most abundant in nature. They are important decomposers. They have significant impact on human affair. They are helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume root etc.. Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crop, farm animal & pets. Eg:- Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker.
Reproduction
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission. Under unfavorable conditions they produce spores. They reproduce sexually by adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to other. (iii) Mycoplasma
They completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cell known.
(c) Euglenoids
They are freshwater organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible. They have 2 flagella a short & long one. Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by predating other small organism. The pigment of Euglenoids are identified to those present in higher plants. Eg:- Euglena.
(d) Slime moulds
They are saprophytic protists. The body moves along decaying twigs & leaves engulfing organic material. Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow & spread over several feet. During unfavourable condition, plasmodium differentiate & form fruting bodies bearing spores at their tip. The spore possess true wall. They are extremely ressistant & survive for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents. (e) Protozoans
They are heterotrophs and behave as predator or parasitic There are primitive relatives of animals. Their are 4 major group of protozoans. (i) Amoeboid Protozoans
These organisms grow in fresh water, sea water or moist soil. They move & capture prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) Eg:- Amoeba.
Marine forms have silica shell on their surface. Some are parasite Eg:- Entamoeba. (ii) Flagellated protozoans.
They are free- living or parasite. They have flagella. The parasite form cause disease. Eg:- Trypanosoma causing sleeping sickness.
(iii) Ciliated protozoans
They are aquatic They have thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to outside of cell surface. The co- ordinated movement of rows of cilia cause the water laden with food to be steered into gullet.
Eg:- Paramoecium
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(iv) Sporozoans.
It includes diverse organisms that have infectious spore like stage in their life cycle. Plasmodium (malarial parasite) cause malaria.
III. KINGDOM FUNGI
It’s a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organism. Fungi are cosmopolitan & occur in water, soil, air & on animals &plants. They prefer to grow in warm & humid places. Eg:- bread mould, orange rots, mushroom, toadstool etc..
Some unicellular fungi are used to make bread & beer. Eg:- yeast Fungi cause disease in plants & animals. Eg:- Puccinia causing rust in wheat.
Some are source of antibiotics. Eg:- Penicillium.
Except yeast, fungi are filamentous. Their body consist of long, slender thread like structure called hyphae. The network of hyphae is called mycelium**.** Some hyphae are continuous tube filled with multinucleated cytoplasm called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross wall in their hyphae. Cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysacchrides. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrate and are called saprophytes. Some are parasites Some are symbiotics. Eg:- Lichen (Fungi in association with algae).
Mycorrhiza (Fungi inhabiting in the root of higher plants).
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction:- By fragmentation, Fission and budding. Asexual reproduction :- By spore called conidia or sporangiospore or zoospores Sexual reproduction:- By Oospore, ascospore, and basidiospore. · They are produced in distinct fruiting bodies. · The sexual cycle involves 3 steps.
Plasmogamy - Fusion of protoplast between two motile or non- motile gametes.
Karyogamy - Fusion of two nuclei Meiosis in zygote results in haploid spores.
When a fungus reproduce sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating type come together and fuse. In some fungi, fusion of two haploid cell immediately results in diploid cell (2n) In other fungi (ascomycetes & basidiomycetes) an intervening dikaryotic stage (n+n ie, 2 nuclei per cell) occurs. Such a condition is called dikaryon & the phase is called dikaryotic phase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse & cell become diploid.
Sexual spores are ascospores produced endogenously in Sac - like asci (singular
ascus). These asci are arranged in fruting bodies called ascocarps.
Eg:- Aspergillus, claviceps and Neurospora.
Economic Importance
Neurospora is extensively used in bio - chemical and genetic work. Morels & truffles are edible and are considered delicacies.
3. Basidiomycetes (bracket fungi)
They are called mushrooms, bracket fungi or puff balls etc. They grow in soil, on log and tree stumps and living in plant body as parasite. Eg:- rusts & smuts.
The mycelium is branched and septate.
Asexual reproduction.
Generally not found.
Vegetative reproduction.
By fragmentation.
Sexual reproduction
Sex organs are absent Plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of 2 vegetative/ somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in basidium producing four basidiospore. Basidiospores are exogenously produced on basidium (plural :- basidia)
Basidia are arranged in fruting body called basidiocarp.
Eg:- Agaricus (mushroom) Ustilago (smut fungus) Puccinia (rust fungus)
4. Deuteromycetes (Imperfect fungi).
They are known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phase of the fungi are known. When the sexual form of the fungi where discovered, they were moved into classes they rightly belong to. It’s also possible that asexual & vegerative phase has been given one name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and placed under another class). Later when linkages were established, fungi were correctly identified & moved out of deuteromycetes. Once perfect (sexual) stage of members of deuteromycetes were discovered, they were often moved to ascomycetes and bascidiomycetes. Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores (conidia). Mycelium is septate and branched. Majority are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling. Eg:- Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
IV. KINGDOM PLANTAE
It includes all eukaryotic, chlorophyll containing organisms commonly called plants. Some are partially heterotrophic such as insectivorous plants eg:- Bladderwort and venus fly trap and parasite Eg:- cascuta. Plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominant chloroplast and cell wall mainly made of cellulose. Plants include algae, bryophytes, pterido phytes. Gymnosperms and angiosperms. Life cycle of plants has 2 distinct phases. The diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte, that alternate with each other. The length of haploid and diploid phase are free living or dependent on others, vary among different group in plants. This phenomenon is alternation of generation.
V. KINGDOM ANIMALA
Its characterized by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms, that are multicellular and their cell lack cell wall. They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserve as glycogen or fat.
Prions
It is an agent consisting of abnormally folded protein which can cause infectious neuroligical diseases. It is similar in size to viruses The disease caused by prions are bovine spongi form encephalopathy (BSE) Commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant of Cr - Jacob desease (CJD) in humans
Lichens
Lichens are symbiotic associations. ie, mutually usefull associations between algae and fungi. Algal component is phycobiont & Fungal component is mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic respectively. Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients & water for its partner. Lichens are very good pollution indicator they do not grow in polluted area. Litmus is obtained. It is commonly used as acid - base indicator in laboratories
CHAPTER 1: PLANT KINGDOM
Eukaryotic, multicellular, chlorophyll containing and having cell wall, are grouped under the kingdom Plantae. It is popularly known as plant kingdom.
Types of Classification System These includes artificial system, natural system and phylogenetic system of classification.
Artificial System of Classification This system is based on comparison of one or a few superficial characteristics, which are helpful in easy identification of organisms. This system use only few superficial characters (i., habits, numbers, colours and shapes of leaves, etc) which leads to
Vijayabheri, Malappuram Dist. Panchayat Project
many organisms grouped together, Natural System of Classification It is also known as phenetic system of classification. The natural system of classification is based on natural affinities among the organisms. It considers both external and internal features like structure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry.
Phylogenetic System of Classification The phylogenetic system of classification indicates the evolutionary as well as genetic relationships among organisms. This system is based on fossil records of biochemical, anatomical, morphological, physiological, embryological and genetical.
If there is no supporting fossil evidences, we now use information from many other sourses to help to resolve the difficulties in classification are the following branches
Numerical Taxonomy use computer by assigning code for each character and analyzing the features. Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure and behaviour. Chemotaxonomy uses chemical constituents of plants to resolve the confusion.
ALGAE : These include the simplest plants which possess undifferentiated or thallus like forms , reproductive organs single celled called gametangia. It includes only Algae.
Characteristic of Algae
Plant body is thallus, which may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous or parenchymatous. Usually aquatic but a few are also found in moist terrestrial habitats like tree trunks, wet rocks, moist soil, etc. Vascular tissues and mechanical tissues are absent. Reproduction is vegetative by fragmentation, asexual by spore formation (zoospores) and sexual reproduction by fusion of two gametes which may be Isogamous ( Spirogyra ), Anisogamous ( Chlamydomonous ) or Oogamous ( Volvox ). Life cycle is various- haplontic, diplontic or diplohaplontic.
Green Algae Brown Algae Red Algae
Mostly fresh water and sub aerial.
Mostly marine. Mostly marine.
Unicellular organisms abundant.
Unicellular species are absent. The plant body has holdfast, stipe and frond
Unicellular species fewer.
Chlorophyll a,b
Chlorophyll a, c ,Fucoxanthin
Chlorophyll a,d ,Phycoerythrin
Reserve food is starch. Members have storage bodies
Reserve food is laminarin. Reserve food is floridean starch.
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The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e., Marchantia. The thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate. Asexual reproduction in liverworts takes place by fragmentation, or by the formation of specialised structures called gemmae. Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develops in small receptacles called gemma cups. The gemmae becomes detached from the parent body and germinate to form new individuals During sexual reproduction, male and female sex organs are produced either on the same or on different thalli. The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule. Spores produced within the capsule germinate to form free-living gametophytes.
- Mosses
The gametophyte consists of two stages- the first stage is protonema stage, which develops directly from spores. It is creeping, green and frequently filamentous. The second stage is the leafy stage , which develops from secondary protonema as lateral bud having upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. Vegetative reproduction is by the fragmentation and budding in secondary protonema. In sexual reproduction, the sex organs antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots. Sporophytes in mosses are more developed and consist of foot, seta and capsule examples are Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum etc.
PTERIDOPHYTES
They are seedless vascular plants that have sporophytic plant body and inconspicuous gametophyte. Sporophytic plant body is differentiated into true stem, roots and leaves. Vascular tissue are present but vessels are absent from xylem and companion cells and sieve tube are absent. Sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtend by leaf like appendages called sporophylls. In some plants ( Selaginella ) compact structure called strobili or cone is formed. Sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells. Spores germinate to produce multicellular thalloid, prothallus. Gametophyte bears male and female sex organ called antheridia and archegonia. Water is required for fertilisation of male and female gametes. Most of Pteridophytes produce spores of similar kind ( homosporous ) but in Selginella and Salvinia , spores are of two kinds ( heterosporous ) larger called megaspore that produce female gametophyte and smaller microspore that produce male gametes. Heterospory is a precursor to seed habit:The development of zygote into young embryos takes place within the female gametophyte which is retained on the parent sporophyte event is a precursor to seed habit.
GYMNOSPERMS:
Gymnosperms are those plants in which the ovules are not enclosed inside the ovary wall and remain exposed before and after fertilisation.
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They are perennial and woody, forming either bushes or trees. Some are very large ( Sequoia sempervirens ) and others are very small ( Zamia pygmia ). Stem may be unbranched(Cycas) or branched(Pinus). Root is taproot. Leaves may be simple or compound. Roots of Pinus have fungal association to form mycorhiza Cycas have small specilised roots called coralloid root which are associated with nitogen fixing cyanobacteria. Leaves of gymnosperms are well adapted to withstand extreme environmental conditions.Eg leaves reduce surface area,sunken stomata,thick cuticle They are heterosporous, produce haploid microspore and megaspore in male and female Strobili respectively. Male and female gametophytes do not have independent free-living existence. Pollination occurs through air and zygote develops into embryo and ovules into seeds. These seeds are naked. Example- Pines, Cycus, Cedrus, Ginkgo, etc.
ANGIOSPERMS
Pollen grain and ovules are developed in specialized structure called flower. Seeds are enclosed inside the fruits. Size varies from almost microscopic Wolfia (0)to tall tree Eucalyptus (more than 100m The male sex organs in a flower is the stamen. It contains pollen grain. The female sex organs in a flower is the pistil or the carpel. Pistil consists of an ovary enclosing one or many ovules. Within ovules are present highly reduced female gametophytes termed embryo-sacs. Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus – one egg cell and two synergids, three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei. The polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce a diploid secondary nucleus.
Angiosperms are further classified into:
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Double fertilisation- Each pollen grain produce two male gametes. One gametes fuse with egg to form embryo. This is called Syngamy. Other gametes fuse with two polar nuclei to form endosperm, triple fusion. Since fertilisation takes place twice, it is called double fertilisation.
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Single cotyledons.
Parallel venation.
Fibrous root system.
Closed vascular bundle.
More number of vascular bundles.
Banana, wheat, rice.
Two cotyledons.
Reticulate venation.
Tap root system.
Open vascular bundle.
Less number of vascular bundles.
Gram, mango, apple.
PLUS 1 Botany Final vijayabheri
Course: Bsc botony (Botony)
University: University of Calicut
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