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amar farooqui social formations
BA (Hons.) History
University of Delhi
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EARLY SOCIAL FORMATIONS- AMAR FAROOQUI
CHAPTER-1 HUMAN EVOLUTION
1. INTRODUCTION
The Human species represent the most advanced stage of evolution, which began with the formation of earth nearly 4600 MYA, and earliest forms of animate matter emerged about 3500 MYA. Evolution is a continuous change which result in the evolution of a new species, over a long time span. Human mind cannot easily comprehend the time span of evolution. Human intervention itself has became a factor other than natural evoltion. It implies cultural adaptation and this had opened up several new possibilities. (Research)
2. SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTION/ THEORIES
Darwinism- Charles Darwin Classification of Plants and Animals by Carl Linnaeus George De Buffon Chevalier De Lamarch
3. DARWINISM (SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST)
In the latter half of the 19th century, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), an english scientist, propounded his famous theory of natural selection in his book “THE ORIGINS OF SPECIES (1859)”. In which he included human beings in the evolutionary process. Darwin’s theory completely transformed our way of looking at nature and ourselves. Darwin in his five year long naturalist expedition to various parts of South America and Pacific aboard the ship HMS Beagle, accumulated a vast amount of information at first hand about varieties of plants and animals, which led to the publication of his path breaking work “The Origins of Species”. Darwin propounded that species have evolved due to minor variation in individual memebers of species. These variations may be inherited by the offspring as a result of a long cumalative process (over several hundred thousand or millions of years). The variation will end up in the emergence of new species. VARIATION AND HEREDITY- Individual of the same species are not at all alike and differ from each other in various characteristics due to natural variations. Favourable adaptations are inherited and are passed onto the off springs of the next generations. If the variation does not result in death or less efficient adaptation, it might being passed on. This implies natural selection. The fittest will be selected- survival of the fittest. By surviving better would be meant not just being able to live but to reproduce successfully. One generation to the next the variations are very small. If they were not minor, the offspring with variations would not just survive. Every variation must not be thought of as an improvement. Some might result in dead-end.
4. CARL LINNAEUS (1707-1778)- CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Darwin’s work was preceded by significant developments in natural sciences during the 18th and early 19th century. An important contribution to the classification of plants and animals was made by the swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus. He classified plants/ animals on the basis of similar characteristics, thereby introducing some order in the available data. Systematic classification made it easier to perceive differences and similarities between species.
5. GEORGE DE BUFFON- NATURAL HISTORY
French scientist Buffon argued in his several volume work “Natural History” that the natural world had changed over a period of time. The contemporary natural world was different from what it was like in earlier ages.
6. CHEVALIER DE LAMARCH- NATURAL HISTORY OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS
Two developments, which assisted in providing a firm basis for the concept of evolution. The emergence of geology as a scientific discipline and the study of fossils. These developments in science prepared the ground for the work of Lamarch, french scientist. In his writing, which included the seven-volume work “Natural history of invertebrate animals” published between 1815 and 1822, animal species underwent change. They were not static, unchanging entities. The species were not fixed but could change from one generation to the next. Fossils evidences confirmed that species had undergone changes, some life forms died, some evolved and got diversifies. However, his understanding of these was simplistic and scientifically incorrect. He suggested that changes occured when a particular part of an animal was either put to more frequent use or was not regularly used. This might cause that part to become larger and conversely disuse would result in smaller organs.
7. DARWIN AND DESCENT OF MAN
Darwin provide a plausible theory for understanding the dynamics of evolution but also placed human beings with this process. Many people didn’t accepted this part of his theory and opposed. He fully developed his argument about human evolution in his later work “Descent of Man (1871)”.
8. STEPHEN JAY GOULD AND RICHARD DAWKINS
According to Gould, a palaeontologist, Darwinian theory indicated very slow and gradual change. Gould’s view is that while there were long periods when almost no change took place, there were short phases when there was a burst of evolutionary activity. It means that some critical mutations might lead to a quickening of evolution for brief periods. His argument is mainly derived from his interpretation of fossil evidence. Gould find it disturbing that there are some very big gaps in the fossil evidence. Richard Dawkins, an eminent zoologist has comprehensively refuted Gould’s argument by emphasizing that such suddent burst of change would initially make adaptation very unlikely for the group with different characteristics. Gaps in fossil evidence can be explained by the way that a small group could have got separated from the main population and might have started evolving in islotation and later went back to the original place.
9. DNA
DNA or genes are the basis of life. These are molecular structure which are distinguished from molecules of non-life forms of matter primarily by their ability to self-replicate and to transmit information. DNA contain information which determines the specific characteristics of a living organism (genetic code). The transmission of the genetic code (containing all the accumulated information of the species) takes place during the course of reproduction. The ability to reproduce is what defines living organisms. What had happened over nearly 3500MY is that the copies have not always been exact. There have been very small errors at times. But reproduction is such a complex process that once in a while there could be a minor error- mutation. Through natural selection and a long cumulative process, mutations which are retained and transmitted to successive generations will result in evolution of new species.
10. CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN EVOLUTION/ PRIMATES
Primates are part of a broader group mamalian vertebrates. They have backbone (vertebrate) for internal support of the body. They have four legs or limbs. Bodies covered with hair. They are warm-blooded animals (their body temperature remains relatively constant).
Anthropoidea first got separated from the prosimii about 40 MYA with the evolution of monkeys. Suffice it to say that monkeys had highly developed forelimbs, vision, flatter faces and shorter snouts as compared to prosimians. Langur have an elongated tail which could be used almost as an additional limb. Tail also helped to balance the body while jumping.
Anthropoidea was further divided as:
Ceropithecoidea- Old world monkeys
Ceboidea-New world monkeys
Difference b/w them relate largely to their dental structures.
Hominoidea-Apes and humans (further divided into Pongidea (apes) and Hominidae).
PONGIDAE- Apes are relatively larger in size than monkey. They have large canine teeth and are powerfully build. Their forelimbs were longer as compared to their hindlimbs and they were more adapted to the ground. Gorillas and Chimpanzees adopt a Semi-erect postures while walking, used knuckles to walk on ground. Several species of apes: chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons, orangutans etc. They are all collectively grouped in the family pongidae. Gibbons have a small body and long arms legs therefore placed by some zoologists in a family of their own- hylobatidae. Unlike monkeys, apes are not adapted exclusively to an arboreal habitat. They climb trees in search of food but they attempt to regularly exploit resources on ground as well. Homonidae divided into two genera (Australopithecus and Homo).
DRYOPITHECUS: the evolution of an ape which lived in Africa about 20 MYA and was very well adapted to living on ground. Moved into asia around 15 MYA.
RAMAPITHECUS: a branch of dryopithecus then separated and evolved into a small ape like creature. First fossil were discovered in India in 1930s. It represents the point at which hominids (hominidae) separated from apes (pongidae) Extensive work is still going on in the Siwalik hills and there are some discoveries in Rawalpindi Area. Extinct around 8 MYA.
Fossils which belong to period around 4 MYA indicate that hominids evolved in two phases, one is bipedalism and second is expansion in brain size. Darwinian view was that both features evolved simultaneously but in 20th century scholars found it difficult to abandon the view that bipedalism and large brain size developed together. A gap of at least 3 Million years between two was there. Fossil evidence combined with molecular evidence points towards beginnings of bipedalism 7 MYA. W. Le Gros observes in his work, the fossil evidence for human evolution, whereas size is ceratainly the distinctive feature of humans, it is not the distinctive feature of of hominidae vis-a-vis pongidae.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS:
1. Australopithecus Africanus: Raymond Dart discovered their fossils in 1924 in South Africa.
Their forehead was steeper (sloping downwards), their skull more rounded at too. Their cheek teeth (molars & pre-molars) were flat, which suggested that they were adopted to grinding through plants foods. They were onmivorous (diet included meat).
2. Australopithecus Robustus: Large cheek teeth, Flatter forehead as compared to Africanus,
bony crest at the top of the skull. They were herbivores. Australopithecus species showed sexual dimorphism. They may have been the first tool-maker.
3. Australopithecus Boisei: The husband and wife team of Louis and Mary Leaky discovered
Australopithecus remains in Tanzania, Olduvai Gorge. Earlier they were names as ‘Zinjanthropus’.
4. Australopithecus Afarensis: They were the earliest Australopithecus, though their fossils
are recently (last) discovered. Recent evidences found from Ethiopia (Omo Valley, Hadar). Final stage of transition to bipedal locomotion. They acquired an erect posture, but still retained some characteristics of apes. They had shorted limbs and their fingers were curved and thorax or chest was conical.
From 7MYA to 2 MYA, no vital change in brain size. Australophithecus brain size (450 cc to 550 cc) was not very different from that of the apes (470 cc for chimapanzees). Increase in brain size occured b/w 3 and 2 MYA. The possibility for this had been created partly by changes in the teeth and jaws. Genus homo is distinguished from australopithecus from its larger brain size.
HOMO GROUP (MUCH CLOSER TO MODERN DAY HUMANS):
1. Homo Habilis: They were present about 2 MYA before present. Their oldest fossils were
found in Kenya (Lake Turkana) and other spicemens at Olduvai. Cranial Capacity was 800CC. They were tool makers (Simple).
2. Homo Erectus: Their fossils date back to 1 MYA. Their earliest fossils are from East
Turkana, Kenya. First fossils discovered in Indonesia.
They were almost like modern human. Their cranial capacity was around 1000 CC. Which is
nearly 70% size of homo sapiens sapiens.
They were taller than Australopithecus. They made tools with great ease and skills. From the
time of Homo erectus onwards, Homo began to move out of Africa into Asia and Europe.
3. Neanderthals (Homo-Sapiens-Neanderthalensis): They existed about 1,25,000 to 1,35,
years ago. Their fossils were first discovered in Germany in 1856. They had increased cranial capacity. Stone tools became more efficient and culture became more and more visible.
4. Homo Sapiens Sapiens: They have a cranial capacity of 1350 CC. They were good in social
interaction. Their skull was globular in shape. Their skull shaped lead to modification of neck shape. Modern humans are unique in the variety of sounds they can produce.
Philip Lieberman has carefully studied the shape and size of the skull and neck of modern
humans in relation to neanderthals and apes.
For nearly, 60,000-70,000 years, different species of Australopithecus, homo habilis and homo
erectus, co-existed.
12. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
The condition in which the two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics like height, weight etc. This feature gradully disappeared with the evolution of Homo.
13. BIPEDALISM
Bipedalism is a major reason behind the skeletan changes shared by all bipedal hominids. Bipedalism had several advantages such as upright walking freed the hands for reaching and carrying food. It saved energy during locomotion. It enables long distance running and hunting. It provided an enhanced field of vision. Opposite thumb helped in tool making, long toe, shorting of the pelvis and birth canal.
14. CRANIAL CAPACITY
Another significant change in the process of evolution was the increase in the size of human brain which grew nearly three times bigger in size. Canines were reduced in size. The lower jaw became lighter, due to which more space was available in the skull to adjust the increasing brain.
CHAPTER-2 PALEOLITHIC AGE
1. INTRODUCTION
Stone Age, prehistoric cultural stage or level of human development, characterized by the creation and use of stone tools. The stone age, whose origin coincided with the discovery of the oldest known stone tools, is usually divied into three separate periods- Paleolithic Period, Mesolithic Period, and Neolithic Period- based on the degree of sophistication in the fashioning and use of tools.
2. PALEOLITHIC AGE
Paleolithic period also called old stone age, ancient cultural stage or level of human development, characteristics by the use of rudimentary chipped stone tools. According to Richard Leakey regular tool-making commenced with the emergence of homo habilis. The larger brain size of homo habilis played a pivotal role in this development. Evidence for beginnings of stone tool manufacture has been found at Olduvai (Oldowan tools). Louis and Mary Leakey were pioneers in discovering the Oldowan culture. They established the human ancestors first became tool-makers in East Africa. Oldowan is the oldest known paleolithic culture. The earliest tools made by homo habilis were extremely crude and rudimentary. It requires considerable expertise to identify these tools. The tools are small in size and often made from pebbles. A small piece of stone would be hit with another to manufacture the tool. The reason why Australopithecus might not have been a tool-maker is that it had a much smaller brain. It is now recognized that even the most rudimentary tools require a high level of intelligence which the Australopithecus perhaps lacked. Nicholas Toth is a scholar who has spent several years studing stone tool techniques. He has tried to master these techniques by actually making stone tool of the type which were manufactured during the early stone age. Highly specialized hand and bipedalism are of course the important prequisites for making tools. But, the real breakthrought comes with the larger brain. Tool manufacture calls for a high degree of motor skill and coordination of various parts of the body (eyes, limbs, fingers etc. ) as well as enormous concentration. Tool making involves a certain measures of conceptualization. The concept of the tool preceded the tool. The tool-maker should be able to form a mental image of the tool which is to be obtained.
3. PALEOLITHIC AGE IS DIVIDED INTO THREE PERIODS
Lower paleolithic- Oldowan, Acheulian, Clactonian, Levalloisian. Middle paleolithic- Mousterian Upper paleolithic- Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian
4. LOWER PALEOLITHIC AGE
1. Oldowan Culture: Oldowan is the oldest known paleolithic culture. Evidence for the beginnings of stone tool manufacture has been found at Oldovai. Hence, the oldest stone tool culture is named ‘Oldowan’.
Tool Technology: The earliest tools made by homo habilis were extremely crude and
rudimentary. It requires considerable experties to identify these tools. The tools are small in size and often made from pebbles. A small piece of stone would be hit with another stone to manufacture the tool. Oldowan tools were used mainly for cutting, plant foods, breaking nuts, digging roots, scraping wood and obtaining honey.
Subsistence Pattern: In this age, humans lived by gathering plant foods (foraging) and hunting
animals. Homo habilis was a meat eater, they hunt small animals and practiced scavenging. The oldowan tools were used for skinning the meat of the animals and for extracting bone- marrow.
2. Acheulian Culture: Named after a site in north France, St. Acheul.
Tool Technology: Acheulean tools are termed hand axes are pear-shaped or tear-drop shaped.
They are pointed at one end and broad at the other. Handaxes are much larger in size than Oldowan tools and are remarkably symmetrical. The homo-erectus handaxe is a ‘core’ tool. Handaxes were primarily used for processing meat.
J. Desmond Clarke, who experimente with these tools, has suggested that the handaxe was an
all purpose skinning tool and meat chopper. The tool was a weapon, used both for hunting prey and for defence against predators.
Subsistence Pattern: By now humans were hunting and eating large animals. Remains of
elephants consumed by Homo-Erectus have found (Torralba in Spain).
3. Clactonian Culture: Smaller chopping tools are seen (used). Clactonian tools were Turtle shaped. Tools were made from other material like wood and bone. Similarly, Levalloisian culture had round tools.
Humans were hunting and eating small and large animals and meat was included in diet in
considerable amount.
5. MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC AGE
1. Mousterian Culture: Traditinally associated with Neanderthal Man in europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. In one sense, Mousterian culture differs from the culture of lower paleolithic. For the first time we find an attribute which is such an important component of human culture, that is, the careful disposal of the dead body.
Tool Technology: The Mousterian tool assemblage shows flaking techniques in common with
the Clactonian, as well as frequent practise in some assemblages of the Levalloisian flaing technique.
There are two broad groups of stone tools: Core tools and flake tools. Flake tools which are
fashioned from the small bits or flakes which come off a bloack of stone when it is hit. Core tools are those which are made from the larger block or “core”.
Mousterian tools were more specialized and as many as sixty varieties of tools have been
identified. It is in the Mousterian levels of the caves and rock shelters of central and southern France that the earliest evidence of the use of fire and the first definite burials have been discovered.
Subsistence Pattern: Neanderthals lived in an environment in which big game was plentiful.
New type of food like fish was available. Neanderthals were experts hunters. The animals which they mainly hunted bison, horse, reindeer.
6. UPPER PALEOLITHIC AGE (EARLIEST EXAMPLES OF ART)
1. Auriganacian Culture: The Auriganacian culture was marked by a great diversification and specialization of tools, including the invention of the “burin”. The Auriganacian were adopt (skilled) at making small bladed with parelled edges. The edges were extremely sharp.
Sites associated with the Auriganacian culture (34,000 to 30,000 Years ago) contain the first
extensive evidence of upper paleolithic art. There are practically no Auriganacian painting, but there are a number of beautifully carved ivory beads which was used for ornamentation. The Auriganacians made small animals figures using ivory and bone. They also ade a flute like wind instrument from bone. Here we see the beginning of music as well.
Two other features of Upper Paleolithic stone tools need to be mentioned:
The use of materials other than stone becomes more widespread. Wood, bone, ivory, and
antler (deer horns) were commonly used.
Many tools now were more composite tools. They were composed of several parts of which
some parts might be made of stone and others of wood or bone. Leaf points would have been joined to wooden rods to make a spear like weapon.
2. Solutrean Culture: Among the tools of Solutrean culture, one of the most characteristics is the tool with a sharp ‘leaf point’.
CHAPTER-3 MESOLITHIC AGE
1. INTRODUCTION
Mesolithic Age: also called Middle Stone Age, ancient cultural stage that existed between the Palaeolithic ( Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age). Mesolithic material culture is characterized by greater innovation and diversity than it is found in the Paleolithic. In most parts of Europe hunting and food gathering economy continued at the beginning of the post-Pleistocene epoch. These early post-glacial cultures seems inferior as compared the Magdalenian. For a long time prehistorians saw this essentially as a period of all-round decline. They used the term ‘Mesolithic’ (middle stone age) for the European cultures of this period. The term Mesolithic was used specifically for the hunting and food gathering cultures of Europe in early post-glacial time. In the context of Europe some scholars have regarded the Mesolithic as phase of decline while for others it was an attempt to adapt to the post-Pleistocene environment by modifying the hunting and food gathering economy. Though the mainstay of the Mesolithic remained hunting and food gathering, there were substantial innovations in the adaptive strategy. Much of the evidence for this new picture on the European Mesolithic comes from Scandinavia and North Europe.
2. MESOLITHIC CULTURES OF SCANDINAVIA
The Mesolithic cultures of Scandinavia attempted to realize the full potential of hunting and food gathering. In these cultures a wide range of animals was hunted intensively. New tools and techniques were utilized to hunt more efficiently. Sea food came to occupy a central place in the economy. This became possible through exploiting the Baltic sea coast which was until now frozen. The Scandinavian ice-sheet covered much of north Europe in the last ice-age. The rich marine life of this region sustained Scandinavian Mesolithic hunters. Different types of fish(of which salmon became a great favourite) and sea mammals(dolphins, seals and whales) were eaten. A rich assortment of land animals too were included in the diet. In the whole, Mesolithic diet was increasingly diversified. A number of fishing hooks, nets and harpoons have been discovered at the Mesolithic sites. The manufacture of very small and highly effective stone pieces (called ‘microliths’) became common. These microliths, with their sharp points or edges, were used to make extremely lethal hunting tools. Mesolithic hunters regularly used bows and arrows. Canoes were made for navigation. These were dug out of tree logs. Dogs had been domesticated for hunting. The development of the Mesolithic in north Europe can be divided into three main periods:- Maglemose (9500 to 7700 BP), Kongemose (7700 to 6600 BP), Ertebolle (6600 to 5200 BP). Sweden, Denmark, and other parts of southern Scandinavia were the major centres of the Mesolithic cultures. Mesolithic sites in southern Scandinavia show a high density of population. In the transition from the Maglemose to the Kongemose and then the Ertebolle periods, Scandinavia Mesolithic communities grew extraordinary large. They lived in densely populated settlements. In the words of T. Douglas Price we can now see the Mesolithic as an age of innovation, interaction and successful adaption among the early post-glacial hunters of northern Europe. This created conditions for the introduction of agriculture in these parts of Europe between 6000 and 5000 BC.
3. WEST ASIA
West Asia had been cold and dry in the ice ages. Post-glacial warming and humidity allowed grassland to come up. The Pleistocene environment in west Asia had been very harsh. Groups which inhabited this region could have sustained themselves by constantly moving about and gathering whatever edible wild plants were available.
Gazelles were hunted in large numbers, almost to the exclusion of other animals. In these difficult conditions there might have ben a greater willingness to experiment with some new types of food, wild cereal grasses were included in the diet. Permanent dwellings began to make an appearance and there is a remarkable continuity of settlement during the post-Pleistocene epoch at some west Asian sites. Evidence of such settlements has been found in Palestine/ Israel, Syria and Jordan. These settlements, dating back to 12,000 BP, are referred to as the ‘Natufian’ culture ( 12,000 BP to 10,000 BP).
4. NATUFIAN CULTURE
In some of the earlier works on the subject, Natufian is referred to as a Mesolithic culture, because it was recognized essentially as a hunter-gatherer culture which had been modified to suit the post-glacial environment. A better understanding of the emergence of food production has enabled us to view the natufian culture as having created the precondition for agriculture. In West Asia a brief Mesolithic age preceded the Natufian culture. The Neolithic does not arise abruptly, but was the product of a long period of adjustment and experimentation. The natufian culture marks the transition from Palaeolithic/ Mesolithic to Neolithic. The Natufians subsisted on collection of wild cereals and nuts, and hunting of gazelles. They lived in circular huts. There is evidence to indicate that there were storage areas for plant foods. This points towards a more stable supply of food as well as a more settled existence. The most significant innovation in tool technology was the introduction of sickles consist of two or three sharp-edged stone blades which are set in handles usually made from bone. The edges of the blades resembled goat-teeth. These were suitable for suitable for cutting wild cereal grasses. Cutting the hard stalks of these grasses resulted in a typical gloss or sheen on the blades which has been preserved on these implements. This gloss confirms that wild cereals were an important source of food for the Natufians.
subsisted increasingly on the cultivation. Rectangular houses were built. These contain pits for storage. Stone tools were adapted for agriculture. Sickles and grinding stones have been found.
5. CATAL HAYUK
This is the most significant early Neolithic site in Turkey (Anatolia) region. Catal Huyuk was a large Neolithic settlement. It is spread over an area of 32 acres. The houses are built of sun-dried brick. There are a number of shrines as well. Catal Huyuk can be described almost as a town. It traded in various types of stone raw materials and seashells. To the west of Anatolia one might mention another early Neolithic settlement, Agrissa-Maghula in Greece.
6. V. GORDON CHILDE
One of the greatest prehistorians of this century, put forth the view that in the post- Pleistocene epoch there was a general process of ‘desiccation’ (drying up). Due to the desiccation those zones which had been rich in plants and animals could no longer support hunter-gatherers. People began to move to areas where there was some source of water. Animals too were forced to move to these areas in search of food. This resulted in a very close relationship between humans and animals, some of which were subsequently domesticated. Species of plants like wild cereal grasses began to be cultivated to supplement the food supply. This lead to agriculture. But after 1950s more precise information on the early Neolithic became available. This showed that was no evidence of desiccation in areas where early Neolithic cultures had developed. Gordon Childe has referred to the shift to agriculture as the ‘Neolithic revolution’. His concept of Neolithic revolution was that this was a revolution in the sense that it marked a major qualitative change-not just a quantitative change (beginnings of civilization).
7. ROBERT BRAIDWOOD
Robert Braidwood:- Found no evidence of desiccation in post-Pleistocene epoch, during the course of his excavations in north Iraq. He therefore ruled out the possibility of drastic environmental changes having led to the origins of agriculture. Braidwood sought to explain the shift to food production in cultural terms. He argued that agriculture developed in certain areas- ‘nuclear zones’- where potentially cultivable plants (wild cereals grasses, lentils etc.) and animals which could be domesticated (sheep, goats) were available in abundance. People acquired more knowledge of the habitat, they learnt to manipulate certain species of animals and plants. This was a cultural process and it was only a matter of time before the shift to agriculture took place in these nuclear zones. From 1968 onwards, after the work of anthropologists like Richard Lee, that more elaborate theories about the origins of agriculture were put forth. In the new theories environment change as a factor like population growth and the social consequences of sedentism.
8. LEWIS BINFORD AND KENT FLANNERY
He suggested that demographic factors were responsible for the shift to agriculture. His hypothesis is that the pattern of adaptation would change if the equilibrium between population and environment is disturbed. As long the equilibrium is maintained people would continue to pursue the adaptive strategy which they were accustomed to. The equilibrium would be disturbed either due to the drastic environment changes or due to demographic changes. As there was no evidence of a drastic change in the environment of West Asia at the end of ice ages, Binford has focused on population growth as the main factor responsible for the origin of farming. Sedentism (lack of mobility) triggered population growth. As long as hunter-gatherers were constantly on the move they tried to keep the birth of offspring in check. Too many infants can hamper movement from one place to another as if is difficult to carry them.
With sedentism it was not necessary to have a long gap between the birth of one child and another. Thus there was a rapid increase in population during the early post-Pleistocene. Binford differentiates between two types of habitats: optimal and marginal. The optimal habitats were the main centres of population than others. The optimal habitats were the main centres of population growth. These had a greater ‘carrying capacity’ (these were areas which had sufficient resources to support a large population). This induced people to inhabit the optimal habitats as they were assured of adequate food supply. They sedentism caused population to grow to a point where it exceeded the carrying capacity of the area. Once the equilibrium was disturbed, some groups moved away from the optimal habitats to neighbouring marginal habitats (Binford refers to these groups as ‘daughter groups’). These were areas which were located at the margins of the optimal habitats. The marginal habitats did not have a very high carrying capacity. Their resources were not adequate for supporting a large population. Consequently the communities which inhabited those areas continued with a more mobile lifestyle. In the absence of sedentism, population growth was kept in check and equilibrium was maintained. Population growth in the optimal habitats created problems for the marginal habitats. As the optimal habitats created the centres of population growth moved to the margins, the balance in these zones was upset. The pressure felt by the people living in marginal habitats forced them to look for new ways to subsist. It was this situation that led to the shift to agriculture in the marginal zones rather than in the optimal habitats. Though Binford regards population growth as the prime movers of change, he has not completely discarded environmental factors. He has suggested that the post-Pleistocene rise in sea levels created a favourable coastal habitat for sedentary populations. Fish and wide variety of marine animals were included in the diet. During the late 1960s, Kent Flannery, put forth the view that there were other ways in which the equilibrium could have been disturbed. He stated that the shift to agriculture did not denote a drastic change. Hunter gatherers (marginal areas of West Asia) began paying more attention to certain types of plants. It was found that these were species whose yield could be increased considerably. Flannery suggested that there might have been accidental changes (mutations) in some of the species which were collected in the wild form. In the case of West Asia, wheat and barley became the favoured plants. Flannery’s theory was based on evidence of the origins of agriculture in the American continent, In Mesoamerica (middle America), early agriculture was based on maize cultivation. According to Flannery these developments were preceded by a shift from a ‘narrow spectrum’ to a ‘broad spectrum’ economy. A broad spectrum economy is one in which a wide range of animals and plants, procured in diverse ways, are included in diet. This ‘broad spectrum revolution’ as Flannery calls it, took place in marginal area like West Asia. In marginal areas it was necessary to tap all possible sources of nutrition. People living in these habitats were open to experimentation.
9. MARK COHEN'S THEORY
He restated the case for population being the major factor underlying the origin of agriculture. His argument is somewhat different from that of Binford’s. Cohen sees population growth as a long-term process. There had been a continuous rise in population during the paleolithic age. As the population increased, humans began occupying all those areas which could sustain the hunting and food gathering economy. Once it became increasingly difficult to have access to such areas, it became necessary to experiment with new ways of procuring food. Agriculture was a response to population pressure. Cohen points out that the advantage of agriculture is that it allows greater density of population.
10. BARBARA BENDER
rituals which were meant to promote fertility (of women as well as the soil). These developed into mother-goddess cults.
CHAPTER-5 THE BRONZE AGE- MESOPOTAMIA
1. INTRODUCTION
Transition from neolithic to bronze age first took place in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia broadly corresponds to present day Iraq. It produced earliest known bronze age civilization – sumerian civilization. Two rivers flowed- Euphrates (Purattu) and Tigris (Idiqlat) from north to south and discharged their waters into persian gulf. Mesopotamia can be divided into two regions- north and south.
2. SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA
Southern Mesopotamia lies roughly b/w middle tigris and persian gulf. This region is nearly 400km long and over 100km across. In east, it is bordered by Iran. In west there is an unending stretch of desert which merges with the Arabian desert. The land is absolutely flat with no stone or rocks. Even at a distance of 400 km from persian gulf ( i. the point where southern mesopotamia begins), the land is just 20 metres above sea level. This means that the region exhibits virtually no slope in the direction of the sea. Southern Mesopotamia is an arid zone surrounded by desert. Rainfall is scanty. Euphrates and Tigris provide possibilities for cultivation and habitation in this region. At the beginning of historical period, the southernmost part of mesopotamis was known as sumeria. Area lying between Sumeria and Northern Mesopotamia was called Akkad. Sumeria and Akkad together constituted southern Mesopotamia. From c. 2000 BC onwards Sumeria and Akkad are referred to as Babylonia. Babylon became the political centre of a major empire in Southern Mesoptamia.
3. NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA
Northern mesopotamia extends from Zagros mountains to middle Tigris. On the west this region is bound by the Syrian Desert. During ancient times northern Mesopotamia was frequently referred to as Assyria. Some of the earliest neolithic settlements were located in northern Mesopotamia. Northern mesopotamia has adequate rainfall. Winter rainfall supports cultivation of crops like wheat and barley as well as various kind of grasses. Wheat and barley can be grown in the zagros mountains wherever 200 mm of rainfall is available. Between 8000BC and 6000BC, a number of neolithic villages came up in northern Mesopotamia-Jarmo.
4. JARMO
The village of Jarmo had multiroomed houses. Houses had mud walla and contained two or more rooms. They also had oven and storage basins. Food production was a major activity. Several sickles have been found at the site. People of Jarmo cultivated wheat and barley. Umm Dabaghiyah was another important early neolithic settlement in northern mesopotamia.
5. NEOLITHIC CULTURES-NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA
By c BC, food production had became widespread throughout northern Mesopotamia, leading to emergence of three successive neolithic cultures. Hassuna (6000-5500 BC), Samarra (5500-5000 BC), and Halaf (5500-4500 BC). In these cultures, cultivation was based on winter rainfall. With the development of neolithic cultures, food production replaced food gathering and hunting in Mesopotamia. Another feature of these cultures was the manufacture of beautiful handmade pottery.
11. THE AL-UBAID CULTURE (5000 TO 4000 BC)
Marked first major attempt to adapt to environment of southern mesopotamia. Initially advantages was taken of natural channels to irrigate crops. Wheat and barley were grown. Goats and sheeps were also reared. Fish, procured from euphrates and tigris, as well as from marshes in lower mesopotamia, was an important source of food. Date palms were also included in diet.
12. METULLURGY
It provided evidence of metal use on a small scale. Copper was utilized for making copper tools. Gordon childe has suggested that at this stage a few metallurgists would have been going from village to village for the purpose of making metal objects. Production of metal objects involves a much more complex process than making stone tools or pottery. The first steps in metallurgy might have been taken by potters with their skilll in using ovens. Halafian potters had been firing their pottery in kilns on 1200 degree celcius, this is precisely temperature at which copper melts. From casting copper the next step was to produce brone. Copper is too soft, adding small quantities of tin, harder material was obtained. Bronze came into use only towards the end of the neolithic. The producers of copper objects could exchange their products for foods. Gordon childe calls then “Roving specialists”, would have moved from place to place making available their service. During al-ubaid period a given community might not yet have been in position to produce enough food to support a group of metallurgists on a permanent basis. Consequently several villages shared the service of these roving copperworkers in exchange for food.
13. POTTERY
Halafians had initiated use of clay for making bricks but it was in al-ubaid culture that bricks were used extensively for constructing dwelling places. This was partly due to fact that hardly any stone was available in southern mesopotamia. Bricks were formed by clay (mixed with straw etc.) in wooden frames. Bricks were initially sun-dried not baked. The older pottery making techniques were continued. Pottery was shaped by hand.
14. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Irrigation needs planning and coordination. This presupposes a higher form of social organization. Graham clarke, writing about southern Mesopotamia states: “Its full possibilities could only be realized by civilized societies. i. socities with political as distinct from merely familial or social institutions, institutions which ensured the discharge by individual of increasingly specialized roles. Temples played a key role in formative phase of sumerian civilization. They were central to development of political institution and helped to shape economic activity. A major function of the temples was to organize irrigation. From small shrined at the beginning of al-ubaid culture, temples grew into massive structures. The social, religious, cultural, economic and political life revolved around them. Excavations conducted at the site of Eridu, near al-ubaid, have brought a light a huge built with mud bricks. It provides a evidence of dominant position of temples in Sumeria. Temples close connection with irrigation made them even more indispensable, thereby reinforcing their authority. Deep canals had to be dug to carry water to the fields. Due to fierce summer heat in this region, crops were mainly planted in september/october. The water lavel of mesopotamia rivers and strems was very low precisely at the time when fields had to be irrigated. The flood waters of Euphrated and Tigris arrived in lowlands only
in April-May, when main agricultural season is over. An addition problem was that when the water level rose and plain was flooded, it had to be drained. A network of canals, dykes and reservoirs was created in sumeria over a period of time to avoid the threat of waterlogging and to accelerate drainage. Al-ubaid onwards, temples were the mechanism for developing irrigation. The digging and upkeep of canals was a joint effort on the part of the community. Priests ad temples personnel soon accumulated expertise in the matter of irrigation. Gradualy temples were transformed into instruments of political control.
15. THE URUK CULTURE (4000 TO 3200 BC)
With Uruk culture we move from prehistory to protohistory. Uruk (modern Warka) was a large sumerian settlement situated near the euphrates. The earliest evidence that we have of the use of the wheel and the plough as well as of writing comes from this culture. Uruk culture saw the beginning of wheel-turned pottery. Beautiful wheel-turned vases have been found at various Uruk sites. The process of metallurgy and wheel making was closely interlinked. Wheels were subsequently adapted for use in transportation. Images of carts depicted on some of the Uruk objects. There were speacialist carpenters in Uruk. Pottery making and metallurgy to had became specialized. This created conditions for further technological development. Plough, this revolutionary tool rendered the breaking of soil much easier. Ploughs were costly and did not completely replace digging sticks for a long time.
16. SEALS
Excavations at Uruk sites have brought to light a large number of seals. These are of two types: stamp seals and cylinder seals. Originally rectangular seals were made. Stamp seals often depicted animals or plants. These were followed by cylinder seals made of ordinary or semi-precious stone. These would be rolled on clay as a mark of identification. Many of them depict mythological figures or scenes from everyday life. George Roux call them “art in Miniature”.
17. WRITING
Uruk outstanding achievement was development of writing. By about 3500 BC, the economy of sumeria had became sufficiently complex to necessitate some systems of making a proper note of various transactions. Clay tablets were used for writing. Impressions were made on these tablets with a hard pointed device (stylus). The clay tablets then dried in the sun or baked in an oven. The earliest such tablets were of the nature of temple accounts and ration lists. These contain crude pictures of certain obejects (fish, sheep, goat, ears of barley etc.) Later, these symbols were simplified further so that only the bare outline would be depicted.
amar farooqui social formations
Course: BA (Hons.) History
University: University of Delhi
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