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Unit-3 - A description of ignou notes.
BA (Hons.) History
University of Delhi
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UNIT 3 POLITY AND ECONOMY IN
DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA
Structure
Objectives Introduction Geographical Setting Political Formations in the Deccan Political Formations in South India 3.4 Rise of the Nayak Kingdoms 3.4 States in Malabar Nature of Polity : Different Approaches The Ruling Elite Economy Let Us Sum Up Key Words Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will'be able to know about 'the: a geographical influences on polity and economy of Deccan and South India; politi&l formation and its qature in Deccan and South India; a role of the ruling elite (nayak and poligan) in polity and economy, and a emerging economic trends i. the impact of the advent of the Portuguese in the region.
3 INTRODUCTION
This Unit provides a link between the developments of the 8-15th centuries and what followed after the decline of the two big empires-the Bahrnani and the Vijaynagar in Deccan and South India. It also gives the background for the developments witnessed in the region with the entry of the Mughals. The study of this unit would help in understanding the change and continuity during the 16th century in respect of polity and economy of the Deccan and South Indian states.
3 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
Geography plays a ,c+l role in the politico~conomic developments. Certain salient geographical features of South India and Deccan influenced the developments in the region (see Block 3 of EHI43). Broadly, the whole tract lying south of the river Narmada is known as South India. However, technically speaking, this tract consists of two broad divisions, Deccan and south India.
Dean In Unit 12 of EHI43 w touched upon the gecgaphy of Deccan. Deccan is bounded in the north and northcast by Nannada and 'Mahanadi riven, while Nilgiri hills and Pennar river form its southern boundary. To the west and east lie the Western and Eastern Ghats along with long coastal strip on both the sides. The area between the
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vast vestern seacoast and the Sahyadri ranges is known as Konkan, a sub-region of ~~.ndoutb
Deccan. The whole strip is full of dense forest, and the soil.& pot adequately fertile.
The area boasts of great strategic importance. Therefore, a nmhr of strong forts
were built there. The famous ports of Chaul and Dabhol also come under this
region. On account of its difficult access. local chieftains (deshmukhs) often
manifested shifting loyalties and at times defied the Central authority. You would
find that it was this geographical location that played crucial role in the rise of the
Marathas. On account of its hilly and forest tracts, the Deccan states were difficult
to penetrate, but, from the side of southern Gujarat it had an easy access through
the fertile Baglana tract. For this reason it repeatedly fell under the sway of the
Gujarat rulers. Finally in the 16th century, the Partuguese altered the balance in that
region. With minor variations, Goa marked the boundary between the Bahmani and
the Vijaynagar states.
The central Deccan (from the Ajanta ranges to the Nilgiri hills and Palaghat gap) possesses black soil which is good for cotton cultivation. The Khandesh and Berar tracts of Maharashtm lying along the banks of the Tapti and the Wardha and Painganga rivers were known for fertility. This led to frequent encounters between the ~alvk and Bahmani rulers for the occupation of Kherla and Mahur. (for details see Units 11, 12 and 28 in course EHI-03).
Between the Krishna and Godavari lies the flat plain whicb &'also famous for its rich 'cotton' soil. Then comes the Telangana region: its soil is sandy and does not retain moisture. The rivers, too, are not perennial; as a result, tank irrigation became important. Along the Krishna valley lies the Kurnool rocks where the famous Golkonda mines were located. The southern Deccan plateau (parts lying in modem Karnataka) is also richin mineral resources (copper. lead, zinc, iron, gold, manganese etc.).
South Indt The region south of the Krishna Tungabhadra doab formed South India. The coastal belt in the east is known as Coromandel while the western tract from south of Kanara (from the river Netravati down to Cape Comorin) is known as Malabar which is bounded by the Western Ghats in the east. We have already discussed (See Units 12 and 27 of course .EHI03) how during the Chola period the focus of activity was confined mainly around the Kaveri tract which, during the Vijaynagar period, shifted further northzast towards Tungabhadra-Krishna doab (the Rayalseema tract) where the capital of Vijapgar was situated. Throughout the 13-16th century, this tract remained the centre of struggle: first, between Vijaynagar and Bahmani, and later between Vijaynagar and its successor Nayak states and the Bijapur rulers. The Qutb Shahi rulers also joined the conflict frequently.
Another feature that influenced the 16th century South Indian polity, economy and society was the migration of the Telugu population from the northern tracts (of South India) which started from the mid-15th century and continued during the 16th century. Interestingly, this movement was from the coastal and deltaic wet land areas, which were greatly fertile, wellcultivated and well-irrigated. There might have been numerous reasons for these migrations like, the Bahmani pressure; deliberate attempts on the part of the Vijaynagar rulers to extend their dominion further south; natural process, that is, movement from more densely populated areas; the soil was well suited to the migrants since it was excellent for dry farming, etc. At any rate, it had deep socioeconomic impact. For example, the development of dry farming led to the rise of tank irrigation which became the crucial part of the 16th century South Indian economy. Secondly, its compamtively low productivity yielded low surplus which helped in the rise of what the modem scholars call 'portfolio capitalists" in this tract.
3 POLITICAL FORMATIONS IN THE DECCAN
The decline of the Bahmani power gave way to the rise of five kingdoms in the Deccan (see Unit 28 of EH103). The death of Mahmud Gawan, an Afaqi noble, virtmlly sealed the fate of the tlahmani power in the Deccan and, finally, the death of Mahmud Shah ( 14kl- I qlKb of the Bahmani rule. The crucial factor in the decline
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DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA
####### 16th Century
\
ARABIAN
BENGAL
Check Your Progress 1 I ) Define the following :
Kdnka~................................................. .. ................ ,. ...........................
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Malabar ...........................................................................................................................
Coromandel ................................... ................................................................................... .. .......................................................................................................................... 2) Match the following: A B i) Bijapur Nizam Shahi ii) Golkonda Barid Shahi iii) Berar Adil Shahi iv) Bidar Imad Shahi v) Ahmednagar Qutb Shahi
- Put a y/ for True and a X for False statement.
i) Nizamshahi rulers wanted to occupy Raichur ctoab. ii) Afaqi-Deccani factor hafly played any significant role in the post-Bahmani politics in the Deccan. iii) After 1550's them occurred a change in Tjapur's relations with Berar. iv) Golkonda wanted to occupy Mudgal and Sholapur.
3 POLITICAL FORMATIONS IN SOUTH INDIA
By 1500, the entire South India formed part of the Vijaynagar empire with the exclusion of Malabar (the south-western coast) and Tinmelveli. Later, even Tirunelveli, too, was annexed (in 1540) by the Vijaynagar empire. At the onset of our period under study, there were four independent kingdoms in the Malabar region: Kolathunad (Cannanore), ruled by the Kolathiris, Kozhikode (Calicut) under the Samudri raja, Venad under the hegemony of the Tiruvadis and, the upcoming Cochin state. During the course of the 16th century, within the Vijaynagar empire, we see the emergence of the Nayak kingdoms of Ikkeri, Senji (Gingee), Odeyar Mysore, Madurai and Tanjore which continued to remain notionally subordinate to Vij aynagar.
The political formations in South India under Krishnadeva Raya and his successors h~vc been dealt with in Unit 27 of the Course EHI-03. Hen our emphasis is on the Nayak khgdoms and Malabar states.
####### 3.4 Rise of The Nayak Kingdoms
When did the Nayak kingdoms emerge? For some historians (Nilakantha Sastri, etc.) the defeat of Vijaynagar (in 1565) generated rebellions. It also led to the growth of the 'tyranny of Palayagars* which resulted in the independence of Nayaks of Madura, Tanjore and Senji. But for others (Burton Stein, etc.), the rise of the Nayaks may be traced to the 1530's. Let us trace briefly the development of each Nayak kingdom.
Senji The bingdom of Senji (along eastern coast from Palar in tht north to ~oleroon in the south) under a napk seems toehave originated during Krishnadevaraya's reign. Its first nayak was Vaiappa. (1526-1544). Till 1592,sall the nayaks of Senji remained loyal to Vijaynagar. However, the Vijaynagar ruler, Venkata I shifted his capital after 1592 from Penukonda to Chandragiri in order to strengthen Vijaynagar's hold over the nayaks. This gave rise to resentment among the nayaks as they expected Vijaynagar's interference in their internal affairs. (This was the main reason for frequent evasion of payment of tribute by the yak^ to Vijaynagar which ultimately led to civil war after Venkata 1's death in 1614.) One instance of such interference pas that the nayak of Vellore, who was subordinate to Senji Nayak, was encouraged by Venkata I to disregard the latter's authority. Venkata I followed the of 'divide and rule' to weaken the nayaks of whious tracts within the Empire. All this l@ the myab of Vellore and Senji to rebel (sometime after 1600). Later, Vellore and Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOUSenji were taken over by Venkata I (1600-1608!.
Indh In the 16th Century trade; secondly, it had strong naval power and; thirdly, it had the support of Arab traders who provided arms and horses.
The 16th century history of Malabar coincides with the early history of the Portuguese in India (for the'establishment of the Portuguese power in Malabar see Unit 04). The Arab merchants of Calicut were apprehensive of the Portuguese designs from the very beginning. The Zamorins supported them against the Europeans. On the other hand, Calicut's rivalry with Citnnanore and Cochin forced. them to cultivate friendship with the Portuguese. Every Zamorin used to depose the then Cochin raja at his accession. Besides, they forced Cochin to sell all its products through Calicut. To retaliate this was an apt opportunity for Cochin. Its ruler ailowed the Europeans to establish a factory in Cochin.*The Portuguese exploited the situation to their advantage. They realized that Calicut was the major hindrance to control the Malabar trade. Hence, throughout the 16th century, the Portuguese carried on armed clashes against Calicut. With a view to drive out the Portuguese, the Zamorins at times allied with Bijapur, Gujarat, Ahmednagar and Egypt. However, the efforts were without success. At any rate, the Zamorins continued to harass the Portuguese on lands. Even on the seas the Portuguese found it difficult to destroy Calicut's naval power which was organized under the celebrated Marakkar family of admirals. From 1528 to 1598, the Portuguese-Zamorin clashes were mainly confined to the seas. It was only in 1599 that the Portuguese succeeded in making a breakthrough against the Marakkars.
The Portuguese control was effective at only those places where they had built their fortresses-Cannanore, Cuchin, Prucaud and Quilon. But their highhandedness and cruelty compelled even these allies to part with them in spite of their traditional rivalries with Calicut. For example, the Cannanore rulers, who supported the Portuguese against Calicut in the early years, later supported the Zamorin in 1558* against the Portuguese. Similarly the raja of Tanur, who had become a Christian and supported the Portuguese against Calicut, turned his back to the Europeans. In fact, it were only Cochin, Prucaud and Quilon with whom Portuguese succeeded in maintaining a lasting friendship.
Check Your Progress 2 1) Name the kingdoms of Malabar.
- When did the Nayak kingdoms emerge? ............................................................................................................................................
3) Discuss the nature of Nayak-Vijaynagar relations durina the 16th century.
- Who were the Zamorins? Discuss their relations with the Portuguese. r ............................................................................................................................................
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3 NATURE OF POLITY : DIFFERENT APPROACHES
The nature of the political fornations of the Deccani kingdoms was somewhat different from that of the South India. However, according to a recent study (Sanjay Subrahmanyam), there exists 'little difference between the states north and south of Pennar', i. between the Deccan and Vijaynagar and successor Nayak states. Sanjay Subrahmanyam says that everywhere one finds 'tributary chieftains' (nayaks and Palaiyakkarars etc.), and presence of revenue farming.
The Deccani states borrowed extensively from the system of their predecessor i. the Bahmanis. That is why Turko-Persian elements were dominant. This provided the crucial background for the newly established states. M. Nayeem characterises the Bijapur state as 'feudal'. For him, the system was based on 'contractual relations' i., in lieu of protection the nobles promised 'allegiance and service' to the ruler. But all the Deccani states were 'centralized' monarchies where Sultan's power was almost absolute. Besides, there also existed fiscal linkage between the periphery and the core. There was no notion of shared sovereignty in contrast to Vijaynagar. Whatever power the Velama, Reddi or Maratha chiefs might have enjoyed under the Deccani rulers, they were under direct central control. However, when the Deccani states started expanding towards further south they satisfied themselves with tributes only, as it was practically difficult for them to directly administer those distant regions. J. F. Richards defines Golkonda as a 'conquest state'. No doubt, the 16th century Deccan polities as such, are marked by constant warfare (see Unit 9). Nevertheless, we cannot describe them a 'conquest state' on the lines of Vijaynagar. The nature of expansion of Vijaynagar differs entirely from that of the Deccani kingdoms: in the fornler ,the 'Telugu nayaksl were instrumental in the expansion, whereas in the latter the montirchy or the centralised state was directly involved in the expansion process.
As for the nature of South Indian states, some historians have termed the Vijaynagar state as 'feudal;' some call it a 'war state' others have highlighted its 'segmentary' character. We have already discussed it in detail in Blocks 3 and 7, Course EHI-03. In the 'feudal' model, the chiefs were required to render military service to their overlords, but they were free to administer their territories. I11 the 'segmentary' state, the periphelal chiefs recognized the ritual sovereignty of the Centre, but the agrarian surplus did not flow from the segment tothe core. However, Sanjay Subrahmanyam does emphasize that (even as late as 17th century) revenue flow from Madurai, Senji and Tanjavur regions was substantial. 1n case, during the 16th century, the 'segmentary' character gradually changed towa* centralization. For Rurton Stein, who is the major propounder of the 'segmentaj' state theory, the process began as early as Krishnadevaraya's reign. The change occurred mainly because of the widespread unrest among the Karnataka (Ummattur) and Tamil chiefs that led Krishnadevaraya to think of more comprehensive strategies. These included : monopoly of force under royal control; posting trusted Brahman commanders at the forts and recruitment of local force from the forest people (poligars), etc. We have also seen how Venkata I, especially after his shift of capital from Penukonda to Chandragiri, attempted to gain firm control over the growing might of' the nayaks. But that resulted irl the nagaks'revolts during the early 17th century. Yet we see that the process that began during the 16th century was completed during the 18th century in the formation of the strong centralized state of Mysore ui~der Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan.
During the 16th century, specially Rama Kaya's reign onwards. another feature
developed in the South Indian polity, that is what Burton Stein describes as the rise
of 'partrirnonialisrn'. Rama Raya replaced the Brahman commanders of the fbrts
(who had no kinship affinities with their overlords) by his own kinsmen and granted
more autonomy to the Telugu chiefs Ispecially in Karnataka-Andhra region). He
even placed the army in the charge of' his two hrothers Tirumala and Venkatadri.
Thus began the 'patrimonial' polity. This filtered further. 'The nayaks artempted to
expand their powers and influence on the basia,of 'patrirnunv' ---speciallv the chiefs of
Maravar who, later in the I 7th i:rnliir),, succeeded in establishing an independent
kingdom at Ramnad and those of' Kallars In Pudukkottol (Raqalseerna). .I,uqh
their clan!caste cotrnectlons. the 'L1arava chlet'u exlcntl~~d ttcit ~rliluence over
Ramesvaram, Madurai and Rannad ((heir hurncland). The Kallar cliefs extended
their au!hority over almost the whole ot Puduhkottai through thrr kinsh~p ties.
PoUty and bnomy h Deccrn and South Indir
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subordinate palaiyakkarars/poligars, especially after 1565. As for the composition of the palaiyakkarars, it was made of Telugu. Kannidigas, Kaladi, Kallars, Morasu Vokicaligas, Tamils, Mulbagal, etc.
During the 16th century, the palaiyakkarars tried to replace the Tamil peasant elite by granting lands to the temples and by 'controlling the regal function of temple protection'. On the other hand, temple lands were often transferred to warrior chiefs. Such transfer of lands led to the decline of the temple economy-especially they lost I I their monopoly of record-keeping. The nayaks centralized record-keeping with the
i
help of the Marathas and Kannadigas who had no locai base. Thus, 'the nayaks
####### I
created the conditions necessary for the emergence to inchoate centralised polities. The destruction of the local power-base and the abridgement of the institutional economy of temples were the first steps towards the emergence of absolutist state formations'. However, the transfer of agrarian power into the hands of the warrior chiefs did not wholly replace the peasants. In a kudiningadevadana, for example, the b peasants acquired a permanent share in the produce of the land and hence they I could not be evisted.
i
The warrior chiefs reclaimed large quantities of land and developed them into towns known as palaiyams its head was known as palaiyakkarar. Their control was almost complete over these palaiyams. They used to impose various taxes on peasants, artisans and merchants. The burden of taxation under these chieftains was very heavy which often led to tensions and unrest, especially among the peasants.
On the other hand, the nayaks at Madurai attempted to bring palaiyak@arar/poligar (subordinate warriorchief) into the fold of the ruling elite itself. They were made incharge of fortslmilitary encampments and became members'of the ruling estate when they were called kumaravamkkam. However, this was not the case with other nayak kingdoms where the relationship was more of confrontation and conflict than of cooperation. At Tanjavur and Senji there existed no palaiyakkarars. Instead, the Brahmans and Vellala chiefs were dominant with no proper military control over them. The nayaka of Ikkeri and Mysore constantly clashed with their subordinate chiefs. I kkeri nayak Sadasiva (1 540-1 565) dealt severely with the poligars of Andige, Muppina, Velur, Mabasale, Kanave and Sirvanti. Similarly, chiefs of Danivara, Kumbesi, Yalavandur, Hebbe Mandagadde, Karabura, Morabadi and Salanda raised their heads during Venkatappa 1's reign (1586-1629), though all were successfully repulsed.
Tlie ruling elite of the Malabar was drawn almost entirely from the Nayars. They were called Nambiars, Kaimals, Mannadiars, Kartavus and Kurups. They controlled the local power and in return were supposed to render compulsory military service. They had their own military o~ganisation-kalaris. Sometimes they owed allegiance . to more than one raja. They held absolute power over the lands under their control. I Interestingly, the Malabar law hardly provided any privilege to the sovereign to either depose OJ confiscate the property in case of rebellion of any hereditary chief. r
I
3 ECONOMY
We will deal in detail about the land revenue system and agrarian relations of the Deccan an3 South India in Units 19 and 20. Here we will take up these aspects very briefly.
Economy of all the South Indian and Deccani states was primarily based on agriculture. The coasts were well irrigated by rain water. For other areas, a well- developed system of tank irrigation was in operation, especially in the Andhra tract. Towards the west, canal irrigation was a'-. 'mportant, especially in Ahmednagar.
For Karashima, Subbarayalu and Heitzm peasants were the proprietors in South Indla. However, Burton Stein and Sanjay Subramanyam cast some doubts. Since the peasants/tenamts had the right to sell shows the existence of proprietorship. But during this period a distinction was made between the proprietorship on 'land' and proprietorship over the 'privileges' (fiscal rights). It was latter that was assured. a There also existed communal holdings.
Polity and Economy in Decan and South lndh
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India in thc 16th century Land tax was the major source of states' income. In South India, the old system of the Vijaynagar continued. Revenue demand varied from 116th to 114th. In Golkonda, however, it was 112 of the produce. The states preferred to realize the revenue in cash. However, the Malabar states were exceptions where no land tax existed. The Malabar rulers depended more on customs dues, janman holdings, etc. But some historians emphasize that the land tax did. exist. However, most of the land was held by the Namputhiri Brahmans which was revenue-free. Since rent payment to temples was comparatively less than the payment to the state the peasants preferred the former.
Primarily there existed three types of lands: i) the crown land which in South India was known as bhanlravndn; in Bijapur muamnh or qalah and in Golkonda khnllsa. ii) the land granted to the nobles, subordinates, etc. known as nman (in the South) and moqnsu (in the Deccan). These nobles paid a fixed sum annually to the ruler. iii) revenue-free grants-mnnyn (in south) and inam (in Deccan). The prevalent form of revenue realization was revenue farming; i., right to collect revenue was given to the highest bidders who used to pay to the statelnobles a fixed sum annually and they were usually left free to collect from the peasants as much as they could.
The Deccani rulers retained the local revenue collection machinery. Revenue officials of different ranks worked at different levels. For instance, the tax official for crown land was called hnvaldar while, at pargnnn level, there were desai and deshmukh.
####### Accountants were known as deshkulknmi and deshpnnde. he village headmen,
accountants etc. were named muqnddnm, pntel and kulkami. All of them received monetary share in the revenue for their work which varied from state to state.
In the coastal belt, separate governors (sar-sarnntu) were appointed who paid a fixed sum annually, similar to the revenue farmers. Though amib were appointed to serve as check on their powers, the states' interest lay more in getting regular payment instead of the welfare of the peasants.
Besides land tax, the state derived revenue from other sources as well-tributes, booty from war and plunder and, above all, from the customs. Bijapur rulers also derived considerable income from jiziyn; licence fee for private minting of coins was also a good source of income. The Golkonda rulers acquired handsome income from diamond mines. The right to collect taxes other than land revenue was held by the trade guilds who used to pay a fixed sum annually and appoint their own officials (like the revenue farmers). Mostly, they were from the Telugu mercantile castes.
An important feature of the 16th-17th century was the rise of 'portfolio capitalists'. Some scholars thought that the trading activity in India was in the hands of merchants who held no political or military power. However, recently (Sanjay Subrahmanyam) this is being argued, especially in the case of Coromandel, that the , revenue fanners (mostly the palaiyakkarnrs). played constructive role in the development of economy. Besides their role as revenue collectors, they also indulged in agricultural trading, development of irrigation. shipping, banking, etc.
We get evidence of diverse sorts of merchants in this period: the Armenians, Portuguese, Telugu Balija Naiyudus, Chettis, Komatis, Arabs, Gujaratis, etc. The internal trade was largely in the hands of the Muslim Mapillas. On the Kanara Coast the chief beneficiaries were the Hindu and Jaina chiefs, while Coromandel coast was controlled mainly by the Arabs, Marakkarar converts, the Mapillas.
Some Scholars hold that the economy In South India did not deteriorate in the 16th century as thought by others. They emphasize that the naynks stimulated economic activity by establishing market-places, towns, etc. The argument of constant warfare, after 1565 is countered on the ground by them that it was a general feature that existed even during the early centuries.
Check Your Progress 3 1) During the 16th century South Indian states show the signs of centralization. Comment.
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ladh In the 16th Cmtury Kudiningadevadana : devsdana (temple land) land granted as kanipparm (land tenure) to warrior chieftains Munmala/Qalah : in Bijapur the terms were used for crown lands. However. muamala were centres of trade and traffic while 'qalah' were strategic points along the Western Ghat.. Nnyak : warrior chief Patrimolly : patronclient relationship based on kinship ties Sahyadri Ranges : the mountain terrain in the west which begins from south of the river Tapti; also known as Western Ghats
3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1 I) You have to discuss their geographic location and characteristic features. See Sec. 3.
2) i) Adil Shah11 ii) Qutb Shahi; iii) Band Shahi; iv) Imad; v) Nizam Shahi. 3) (i) x (ii) 4 (iii) / (iv) x
Check Your Progress 2 I) Mention their names as well as their geographic location. See sec.3; Sub-Sec. 3.4.
2) Discuss in general the emergence of nayaks. See Sub-sec. 3.4. 3) You have to mention whether nayaks remained loyal even after 1 565 or there occurred changes in their relatiotls with Vijaynagar rulers. See Sec. 3.
- Identify who were Zamorins and very briefly discuss the nature of Portuguese- Zamorin relations. See Sub-scc. 3.4.
Check Your Progress 3 I) Discuss how there occurred changes in the 'segmentary' character and why? See sec. 3.
2) Discuss how and why the Golkonda rulers retained the local elites but under central control; and also discuss the position of Muslim elites. In composition. discuss various categories of nobles. See Sec. 3.
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Unit-3 - A description of ignou notes.
Course: BA (Hons.) History
University: University of Delhi
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