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AECC notes exams for first semester
Political science (BA Honours)
University of Delhi
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AECC ENGLISH - SYLLABUS
1. Introduction : Theory of Communication, Types and modes of Communication
2. Language of Communication : Verbal and Non-verbal (Spoken and Written) Personal, Social and Business Barriers and Strategies Intra-personal, Inter-personal and Group communication
3. Speaking Skills : Monologue Dialogue Group Discussion Effective Communication/ Mis- Communication Interview Public Speech
4. Reading and Understanding Close Reading Comprehension Summary Paraphrasing Analysis and Interpretation Translation(from Indian language to English and vice-versa) Literary/Knowledge Texts
5. Writing Skills Documenting Report Writing Making notes Letter writing
EXAMINATION PATTERN AECC (ENGLISH) – WRITTEN EXAMINATION Unit 1. Theory of Communication (2Qs x 5 Marks = 10 Marks) Unit 2. Language of Communication – Short Notes (5Qs x 2 Marks = 10 Marks) Unit 3. Speaking Skills – 3 Sub-topic to be tested = 20 Marks Unit 4. (i) Unseen Reading Comprehension – 10 Marks (ii) Summary/ Simple theory question on translation/ translation 5 sentences from English to MIL – 5 Marks Unit 5. Writing Skills – Report writing + Letter writing – 20 Marks INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 10 Marks – Class Test + 10 Marks – Class Work + 5 Marks – Attendance
UNIT 1: THEORY OF COMMUNICATION
1 What is communication? The word ‘communication’ has been derived from Latin words ‘communis’ and ‘communicare’. The meaning of the first word suggests to make common and ‘communicare’ means to share or sharing. Definition 1: It is the ability to speak, write or to express our ideas, feelings: clearly and convincingly. Definition 2: It is the process of sending and receiving messages for the purpose of understanding, knowing, informing and in the broadest sense, improving the relation with the world. Definition 3 (Robert Anderson): Communication is the interchange of thoughts, opinions or information by speech, writing or signs. Communication can also be symbolic because it is not limited to words or language. It can always be done by the help of gestures and symbols or facial expressions. The symbols can be present with and without language. Our ability to symbolize and express makes the process of communication possible. Communication is the process of expressing one’s ideas, thoughts, feelings, expressions, emotions, language, knowledge etc. The process may involve transaction, exchange, and sharing. Communication can also be understood as an exchange of meaning and understanding. Meaning is central to communication, and the transmission of meaning is the central objective of communication. Communication begins with the sender sending out message cues, which are perceived by the receiver who assigns meaning to them and responds to them as per the need. Communication can be complete unless the message sent by the sender is properly decoded at the receiver’s end and comprehended. Moreover, communication can be considered effective only when the receiver’s response is matching with the meaning the sender wanted to convey.
A model of the communication process would most commonly look like this:
Sender/ Encoder
Encoding the message
Receiver/ Decoder
Decoding the message
Feedback
professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern. In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication. Formal communication is otherwise known as official communication. In case of formal communication we use formal language. Formal communication is used for serious or official purposes. E. Debate, discussions, lectures, interview, seminars, speech, Group work, meetings, presentations, public speaking, press briefing etc. Most times it is bereft of personal feelings and emotions. That’s why critics categorize formal communication as artificial communication. In formal communication, the same topic communicated at different places, to different persons under different situations and environment can vary. The status and position of the persons involved in the process also changes the form of formal communication.
2. Informal Communication Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication channels. It can be a casual conversation. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually informal communication is done orally and using gestures. Informal communication, unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships. Informal communication includes all the communication that we do either in a professional set up or in social set up without any serious purpose attached to it. E. casual greetings or private conversations, chatting, gossiping etc... Informal communication is natural and free flowing communication without any rules, restrictions and formality. It reflects personal touch, humility and emotions. One must understand that there is a hair line difference between formal and informal communication. Language used in both types of communication depends on the kind of relationship plus in what context the communication is taking place. The environment has a definite role in deciding the degree of formality in the process of communication.
Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:
- Verbal Communication
- Nonverbal Communication
1. Verbal Communication: Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and/or a piece of writing. Verbal communication is any communication that uses language. Verbal Communication is further divided into:
i. Oral Communication ii. Written Communication
1) Oral Communication: In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face- to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking. Advantages of Oral communication: It brings quick feedback. In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess whether he/she should trust what’s being said or not. Disadvantage of oral communication: In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so this can be counted as a
2) Written Communication:
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written.
In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.
Written Communication is the most common form of communication being used in business. So, it is considered core among business skills, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for internal communication.
For communicating with external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
Advantages of written communication : Messages can be edited and revised many time before they are actually sent communication provides a record for every message sent and can be saved for later study. A written message enables the receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages of written communication includes:
Some cues of Non-verbal Communication: - Kinesics - Proxemics - Chronemics - Haptics - Paralanguage - Silence - Sign Language
KINESICS:
The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis , which means “movement,” and refers to the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements. Specifically, this section will outline the use of gestures, head movements and posture, eye contact, and facial expressions as nonverbal communication.
1. Gestures
There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators.
Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are not in control of our surroundings. Many of us subconsciously click pens, shake our legs, or engage in other adaptors during classes, meetings, or while waiting as a way to do something with our excess energy. Common self-touching behaviors like scratching, twirling hair, or fidgeting with fingers or hands are considered self-adaptors. Some self-adaptors manifest internally, as coughs or throat-clearing sounds.
Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning. A hitchhiker’s raised thumb, the “OK” sign with thumb and index finger connected in a circle with the other three fingers sticking up, and the raised middle finger are all examples of emblems that have an agreed-on meaning or meanings with a culture. Emblems can be still or in motion; for example, circling the index finger around at the side of your head says “He or she is crazy,” or rolling your hands over and over in front of you says “Move on.” Emblems are gestures that have a specific meaning. In the United States, a thumbs-up can mean “I need a ride” or “OK!”
Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal message they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used more subconsciously than emblems. These largely involuntary and seemingly natural gestures flow from us as we speak but vary in terms of intensity and frequency based on context. Although we are never explicitly taught how to use illustrative gestures, we do it
automatically. Think about how you still gesture when having an animated conversation on the phone even though the other person can’t see you.
2. Head Movements and Posture
In terms of head movements, a head nod is a universal sign of acknowledgement in cultures where the formal bow is no longer used as a greeting. In these cases, the head nod essentially serves as an abbreviated bow. An innate and universal head movement is the headshake back and forth to signal “no.” This nonverbal signal begins at birth, even before a baby has the ability to know that it has a corresponding meaning. Babies shake their head from side to side to reject their mother’s breast and later shake their head to reject attempts to spoon-feed. This biologically based movement then sticks with us to be a recognizable signal for “no.”
There are four general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, and lying down. Most of our communication occurs while we are standing or sitting. One interesting standing posture involves putting our hands on our hips and is a nonverbal cue that we use subconsciously to make us look bigger and show assertiveness. When the elbows are pointed out, this prevents others from getting past us as easily and is a sign of attempted dominance or a gesture that says we’re ready for action. In terms of sitting, leaning back shows informality and indifference, straddling a chair is a sign of dominance (but also some insecurity because the person is protecting the vulnerable front part of his or her body), and leaning forward shows interest and attentiveness.
3. Eye Contact
We also communicate through eye behaviors, primarily eye contact. While eye behaviors are often studied under the category of kinesics, they have their own branch of nonverbal studies called oculesics, which comes from the Latin word oculus , meaning “eye.”
The face and eyes are the main point of focus during communication, and along with our ears our eyes take in most of the communicative information around us. Certain eye behaviors have become tied to personality traits or emotional states, as illustrated in phrases like “hungry eyes,” “evil eyes,” and “bedroom eyes.” Eye contact serves several communicative functions ranging from regulating interaction to monitoring interaction, to conveying information, to establishing interpersonal connections. In terms of regulating communication, we use eye contact to signal to others that we are ready to speak or we use it to cue others to speak. Aside from regulating conversations, eye contact is also used to monitor interaction by taking in feedback and other nonverbal cues and to send information. A speaker can use his or her eye contact to determine if an audience is engaged, confused, or bored and then adapt his or her message accordingly. Our eyes also send information to others. People know not to interrupt when we are in deep thought because we naturally look away from others when we are processing information. Making eye contact with others also communicates that we are paying attention and are interested in what another person is saying.
4. Facial Expressions
Or Time language. This is the study of the use of time to communicate. In the professional world, time is a valuable resource. How we manage our time communicates a lot about the kind of person we are. When we are late for an appointment, people respond negatively. If we arrive early, we are considered over- eager. Therefore, it is important to be punctual. Punctuality is a tool in time language.
HAPTICS
Or Touch Language. This indicates communication through the sense of touch. It includes the way we communicate by our physical contact or by touching the other person. It varies in acceptability across cultures. For example, a pat on the back, kissing, slapping, shaking hands with someone are ways of communicating.
PARALANGUAGE
Paralanguage is the way meaning is conveyed by how we say things while speaking. It is a powerful complement to oral communication. Very often while communicating, what we say is not as significant as how we say it. Paralanguage (“beyond language”) is a kind of non-verbal communication. It involves speed, volume, pitch, whether the spoken word is loud or inaudible, high-pitched or husky, fast or slow, the accent while speaking etc. Following are a few aspects of paralanguage:
i. Vocalization of Words: Based on: (a) Volume Variation: Sound energy while speaking is an important indicator of one’s mood or rank. For example, when you are angry the sound energy is high, while it is low in intimate conversations. (b) Pitch Variation: The shrillness of sound (c) Speed of Speaking (d) Pauses: well timed pauses are effective in communication.
ii. Word Stress Word stress is also an important element in paralanguage. The meaning of a sentence changes according to which word you choose to stress. So, for example, all of the following four sentences have different meanings, according to which word is stressed:
- Have you read the new book?
- Have you read the new book?
- Have you read the new book?
- Have you read the new book?
- Have you read the new book?
iii. Inflection:
Inflections are small bits of sound that are attached to utterances. People from different regions sound different while speaking English. iv. Non-fluencies: Hesitant moments in our speech between the coherent parts of our utterances are called non-fluencies. For example, Sounds such as umm or err.
SIGN LANGUAGE:
Sign language refers to symbols which are commonly used within a community or a group to mean something that is constant for all members of the community. For example, traffic signs are common all over the world. Other examples of signs are road signals, graphs, maps, alarms, sirens etc. Types of Signs:
- Audio Signs: When sounds are used to symboloze certain things. Example: Sirens of factories denoting shift change, ringing of doorbell etc.
- Visual Signs: Road signs, traffic signals etc.
- Audio Visual Signs: Signs combining both audio and visual elements. In TV, films, multimedia, Internet many audio-visual signs are used to communicate.
The most common type of sign language is a language which chiefly uses manual
communication to convey meaning, as opposed to acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. Sign languages share many similarities with spoken languages (sometimes called "oral languages"), which depend primarily on sound, which is why linguists consider both to be types of natural language. There are, however, also some significant differences between signed and spoken languages, such as how they use space grammatically, sign languages show the same linguistic properties and use the same language faculty as do spoken languages. They should not be confused with body language, which is a kind of non-linguistic communication.
Wherever communities of deaf people exist, sign languages have developed, and are at the cores of local deaf cultures. Although signing is used primarily by the deaf, it is also used by others, such as people who can hear but cannot physically speak, or have trouble with spoken language due to some other disability (augmentative and alternative communication).
It is not clear how many sign languages there are. A common misconception is that all sign languages are the same worldwide or that sign language is international.
TWO TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION:
1. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION:
The communication between one organization and another outside organization is known as external communication. 2. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION: The communication within a single organization is known as Internal communication.
people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions, and thoughts about the topic, which creates barriers to delivering the right meaning. Recognizing barriers to effective communication is a first step in improving communication style. Following are some of the more common barriers to communication:
Encoding Barriers. The process of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a message requires skill and knowledge. Obstacles listed below can interfere with an effective message.
Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown in communication may result when a message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receiver’s needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the sender in preparing a successful message. If a customer is angry, for example, an effective response may be just to listen to the person vent for a while.
Lack of Basic Communication Skills. The receiver is less likely to understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words needed and arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific information about something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message. Have you shopped for an item such as a computer, and experienced how some salespeople can explain complicated terms and ideas in a simple way? Others cannot.
Information Overload. If you receive a message with too much information, you may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of information is coming so fast that you may have difficulty comfortably interpreting that information. If you are selling an item with twenty-five terrific features, pick two or three important features to emphasize instead of overwhelming your receiver (ho-hum) with an information avalanche.
Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to communicate well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended message. If you don’t like someone, for example, you may have trouble “hearing” them.
Transmitting Barriers: Things that get in the way of message transmission are sometimes called “noise.” Communication may be difficult because of noise and some of these problems:
Physical Distractions. A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant can destroy communication. If an E-mail message or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message because the physical appearance of the letter or E-mail is sloppy and unprofessional.
Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver may result in incomplete communication. For example, if a person constantly uses jargon or slang to communicate with someone from another country who has never heard such expressions, mixed messages are sure to result. Another example of conflicting messages might be if a supervisor requests a report immediately without giving the report writer enough time to gather the proper information. Does the report writer emphasize speed in writing the report, or accuracy in gathering the data?
Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may cease. Detailed instructions presented over the telephone, for example, may be frustrating for both communicators. If you are on a computer technical support help line discussing a problem, it would be helpful for you to be sitting in front of a computer, as opposed to taking notes from the support staff and then returning to your computer station.
Long Communication Chain. The longer the communication chain, the greater the chance for error. If a message is passed through too many receivers, the message often becomes distorted. If a person starts a message at one end of a communication chain of ten people, for example, the message that eventually returns is usually liberally altered.
Decoding Barriers. The communication cycle may break down at the receiving end for some of these reasons:
Lack of Interest. If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the message, the reader may read the message hurriedly or listen to the message arelessly. Miscommunication may result in both cases.
Lack of Knowledge. If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled with technical information, communication will break down. Unless a computer user knows something about the Windows environment, for example, the user may have difficulty organizing files if given technical instructions.
Lack of Communication Skills. Those who have weak reading and listening skills make ineffective receivers. On the other hand, those who have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on listening, have less trouble hearing and interpreting good communication. Many people tune out who is talking and mentally rehearse what they are going to say in return.
Emotional Distractions. If emotions interfere with the creation and transmission of a message, they can also disrupt reception. If you receive a report from your supervisor regarding proposed changes in work procedures and you do not particularly like your supervisor, you may have trouble even reading the report objectively. You may read, not
of the message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker. 5. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body language. He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good. 6. Avoid Information Overload: One should know how to prioritize their work. They should not overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively. 7. Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the feedback might be negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to effective communication between the superior and subordinate. 8. Proper Media Selection: One should properly select the medium of communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using written means of communication such as Memos, Notices etc. 9. Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization the managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to meet their targets.
2 Levels of Communication: Intra-personal, Inter-personal, and Group Communication
(a) Intra-personal communication
Intrapersonal communication takes place within a single person, often for the purpose of clarifying ideas or analyzing a situation. Other times, intrapersonal communication is undertaken in order to reflect upon or appreciate something. Talking to oneself, thinking etc. can be included in this. Internal discourse involves thinking, concentration and analysis. Psychologists include both daydreaming and nocturnal dreaming in this category. Solo vocal communication includes speaking aloud to oneself. This may be done to clarify thinking, to rehearse a message intended for others, or simply to let off steam. Example: Talking to yourself as you complain about your boss. Solo written communication deals with writing not intended for others. Example: An entry in a diary or personal journal.
(b) Inter-personal Communication
Interpersonal communication involves a direct face-to-face relationship between the sender and receiver of a message, who are in an interdependent relationship. Any communication/ conversation between two or more people falls under this category. Interpersonal communication involves not only the words used but also the various elements of nonverbal communication.
- Public communication involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style generating only minimal feedback. Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are common purposes of public communication. Example: Lecture in university class.
(c) Group/ Organisational Communication Group communication involves three or more persons, though communication scholars are inconsistent as to the top end of the number scale. The smaller the number in the group, the more closely this mode resembles interpersonal communication. It can also refer to an organisational communication, which means communication within an organisation, or communication between different organisations.
(d) Extrapersonal Communication In extra-personal communication, human beings interact with non-human entities. An example would be communicating with one’s pets. Similarly, any communication with inanimate objects can be termed so.
(e) Mass Communication Mass communication is a more public form of communication between an entity and a large and diverse audience, mediated by some form of technology. This may be either real time or on a taped-delay basis, or it may be rooted in the usually recent past. Examples: Radio and television, newspapers and magazines.
FLOW OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication can be characterized as vertical, horizontal, or diagonal.
1. Vertical Communication: Vertical communication occurs between hierarchically positioned persons and can involve both downward and upward communication flows. Downward communication is more prevalent than upward communication. Larkin and Larkin (1994) suggest that downward communication is most effective if top managers communicate directly with immediate supervisors and immediate supervisors communicate with their staff. A wealth of evidence shows that increasing the power of immediate supervisors increases both satisfaction and performance among employees.
Downward Communication: In downward communication, the information flows from the superiors to the subordinates, in terms of instructions, advice, orders and so on.
superintendent (D). Another example is the grapevine through which information passes throughout a school building or district between different departments and organizational levels.
CHAIN NETWORK
The Y network is similar to the chain except that two members fall outside the chain. In the Y network, for example, members A and B can send information to C, but they can receive information from no one. C and D can exchange information; E can receive information from D but cannot send any information. For example, two assistant principals, (A and B) report to the principal (C). The principal, in turn, reports to the assistant superintendent (D), who reports to the superintendent (E).
Y NETWORK
The circle network, a three-level hierarchy, is very different from the wheel, chain, and Y networks. It is symbolic of horizontal and decentralized communication. The circle
gives every member equal communication opportunities. Each member can communicate with persons to their right and left. Members have identical restrictions, but the circle is a less restricted condition than the wheel, chain, or Y networks. For example, the circle network has more two-way channels open for problem solving (i., five) than the four channels of the aforementioned networks. In the circle network, everyone becomes a decision maker.
CIRCLE NETWORK
The all-channel or star network is an extension of the circle network. By connecting everyone in the circle network, the result is a star, or all-channel network. The star network permits each member to communicate freely with all other persons. The star network has no central position, and no communication restrictions are placed on any member. A committee in which no member either formally or informally assumes a leadership position is a good example of a star network.
ALL CHANNEL (STAR)
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION OR GRAPEVINE:
AECC notes exams for first semester
Course: Political science (BA Honours)
University: University of Delhi
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