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Human Rights in Comparative Perspective.
abt human rights
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Political science (BA Honours)
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Chapter-01: Understanding Human Rights
Evolution of Human Rights
The idea of rights and duties of citizens is as old as the concept of the state. As man
is a social being and cannot live outside society, the problem of rights arose
involving man’s relations with other individuals in our society, and his relations with
the state and the government. Through these relations men evolved certain norms of
social behaviour, which over centuries, came to be known as Human Rights. One
may find their origin in ancient Greek and Roman political systems in Europe,
Confucian system in China, the Islamic political system in the Muslim world and the
Panchayat System in India. But the concept of rights in those systems was not fully
developed and understood in the sense that we know them today.
Many important events and revolutions contributed towards the development of
human rights. The earliest charters of human rights are to be found among the three
British constitutional documents, namely, the Magna Carta (1215), the Petition of
Rights (1628), and the Bill of Rights (1689) adopted after the Glorious Revolution
of 1688. These three documents were the forerunners of the modern bills of rights.
They imposed restrictions on the powers of the King and his arbitrary rules. It may
be recalled that in the 17th century England, there were conflicts and tensions
between the Parliament and the King over his arbitrary rule. These struggles led to
the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This Revolution is also known as Bloodless
Revolution. James II, the king was forced to abdicate the throne. Following the
revolution, the Parliament passed the Bill of Rights in 1689. This bill declared the
suspending and dispensing powers of the Crown as illegal. It prohibited the levying
of taxes or the maintenance of standing army in peacetime by the Crown without
Parliamentary consent. The Glorious Revolution, thus, provided a precedent that
rulers could be removed by popular will if they failed to observe the requirement of
constitutional legitimacy.
Important Declarations of Rights
It was in the late 17
th
and 18
th
centuries that the necessity for a set of written
guarantees of human freedoms was felt as a new philosophy of governance. The
dignity and rights of man was the dominant theme of political philosophy of the 18th
century. It was given a practical significance with historical documents such as the
Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), the American Declaration of
Independence (1776), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
(1789), and the series of amendments to the US constitution adopted in 1791 as the
American bill of rights.
The American declaration of independence contains ideas of human rights, such as:
“That all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with
certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and pursuit of
happiness.. to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men,
driving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any
form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the
people to alter or abolish it.”
The Virginia Declaration of Rights included specific liberties that were to be
protected from state’s interference. This included freedom of press, the free exercise
of religion and the obligation that no person should be deprived of their Liberty
except by the law of land for the judgement of the respective institution. The Virginia
Declaration had a great influence on the drafters of the US Constitution (1787).
The French Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, 1789, recognised many
rights, such as, all men are born equal; the state shall preserve the natural rights of
than the American, the question of the rights of women was raised, only to be quickly
suppressed, and slavery was abolished, only to be restored by Napoleon. Moreover,
some Western states like United Kingdom and France did not extend the notion of
rights to the subject people in their colonies. Human rights, therefore, had not
become universal during that time.
International Efforts to Develop Human Rights: -
During the last 350 years many international efforts were undertaken in conferences
and international organizations which contributed towards the evolution of Human
Rights norms and standards. Following are some of the major landmark
developments at the international level, which have brought the protection of human
rights on the agenda of international politics and law.
1. Humanitarian Intervention: -
The doctrine of humanitarian intervention has been expounded by many
international lawyers, including Hugo Grotius, the father of international law, in the
17th century. This doctrine recognizes as lawful the use of force by one or more
States to stop the maltreatment by a State of its own nationals when that conduct was
so brutal and large scale as to shock the conscience of the community of nations. It
is true that the principles of humanitarian intervention were frequently misused in
the past and often served as a pretext for occupation or invasion of weaker countries.
But it was the first to give expression to the proposition that there were some limits
to the freedom that the States enjoyed under International law in dealing with their
own nationals. Many great powers have invoked the principle during the 19th
century to prevent the Ottoman Empire from persecuting minorities in the Middle
East and the Balkans.
2. International Humanitarian Law: -
International humanitarian law was developed through many treaties concerning
laws of war. Treaties of 1864, 1906, and 1929 regulated the rights of the wounded
in armies in the field and the wounded at sea in times of armed conflict. The 1864
treaty also protected medical personnel and hospitals. And also, the protection to
civilian population was provided by 1907 Hague Convention and prisoners of war
were dealt with by the treaty in 1929. From time to time the laws contained in these
treaties have been revised and modernized. The four Geneva conventions aim to
protect the sick and wounded members of the armed forces, prisoners of war and
civilian population.
3. Abolition of Slavery: -
The first International treaties concerning human rights were linked with the
acceptance of freedom of religion (e. The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648) and the
abolition of slavery. Slavery had already been condemned by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815 and a number of international treaties on the abolition of slavery appeared
in the second half of the 19th century (e. The Treaty of Washington of 1862,
documents of the conferences in Brussels in 1867 and 1890 and in Berlin in 1885).
The practice of slavery was first condemned in the Paris Peace Treaty (1814)
between Britain and France. Under the league of Nations, the convention to suppress
the slave trade and slavery was adopted in 1926. This convention still remains the
basic document prohibiting the practice of slavery, although it was amended by a
protocol in 1953 and supplemented in 1956 to deal with problems of defining the
acts which constitutes slavery in the modern world.
regarding the Aaland Islands and treaties relating to Danzing, Upper Silesia and
Memel.
The league agreed to serve as the guarantor of the undertaking that the parties
assumed in the treaties. It exercised those functions by developing a system for
dealing with petitions by minorities charging violations of their rights. During 1930-
32, the league received 305 petitions from the minorities out of which only 153 were
admitted.
6. United Nations and Human Rights: -
The Charter of the United Nations (1945) is the most important landmark in the
development of modern principles of human rights. The charter makes repeated
references to human rights. It considers that the international peace and security
depends, among other things, on the recognition of observance of human rights. Its
preamble states:
“The peoples of the United Nations express the determination to reaffirm faith in
fundamental human rights of men and women and of nations large or small.”
One of the four purposes of the United Nations is the promotion and encouragement
of human rights and freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or
religion. In article 55 and 56 of the charter, the U. members pledged to make joint
and separate action in cooperation with the United Nations for the achievement of
their goals. Since Human Rights were not defined in the charter due to the lack of
time and agreement among Nations, the task of elaborating them was left to the
General Assembly. The Assembly completed its task by adopting the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on 10th December 1948 which included both
civil and political and economic, social and cultural rights. Subsequently the general
assembly has adopted many conventions, covenants and declaration and the process
continues.
लोकिÿय सहमित Ĭारा हटाया जा सकता है यिद वे संवैधािनक वैधता कì आवÔयकता का पालन करने म¤ िवफल
रहे ।
अिधकारŌ कì महÂवपूणª घोषणा
यह 17 वé और 18 वé शताÊदी के अंत म¤ था िक मानव Öवतंýता कì िलिखत गारंटी के एक सूची कì आवÔयकता
को शासन के नए दशªन के łप म¤ महसूस िकया गया । मनुÕय कì गåरमा और अिधकार 18 वé शताÊदी के
राजनीितक दशªन का ÿमुख िवषय रहा । इसे ऐितहािसक दÖतावेजŌ जैसे िक वजêिनया घोषणा के अिधकार
(1776), Öवतंýता कì अमेåरकì घोषणा (1776), मनुÕय और नागåरक के अिधकारŌ कì Āांसीसी घोषणा
(1789), और अमेåरकì संिवधान कì संशोधनŌ कì ®ृंखला के साथ एक Óयावहाåरक महÂव िदया गया था ।
अमेåरकì संिवधान ने 1791 म¤ अमेåरकì अिधकारŌ के िबल के łप म¤ इन अिधकारŌ को अपनाया ।
Öवतंýता कì अमेåरकì घोषणा म¤ मानव अिधकारŌ के िनÌनिलिखत िवचार शािमल ह§, जैसे:
“िक सभी पुŁषŌ को समान बनाया जाता है, िक वे अपने िनमाªता Ĭारा कुछ अचूक अिधकारŌ के साथ
संपĭ होते ह§, िजनम¤ से जीवन, Öवतंýता और खुशी कì खोज है ... इन अिधकारŌ को सुरि±त करने के
िलए, पुŁषŌ के बीच सरकार¤ Öथािपत कì जाती ह§, और वे शािसत कì सहमित से अपनी शिĉयŌ को
चलाती ह§ । िक जब भी सरकार का कोई भी łप िवनाशकारी हो जाता है, तो यह लोगŌ का अिधकार है
िक वे इसे बदल द¤ या समाĮ कर द¤ ।“
अिधकारŌ कì वजêिनया घोषणा म¤ िविशĶ Öवतंýताएं शािमल थé िजÆह¤ राºय के हÖत±ेप से संरि±त िकया जाना
था । इनम¤ ÿेस कì Öवतंýता, धमª का Öवतंý अËयास और यह दाियÂव शािमल है िक संबंिधत संÖथा के िनणªय के
िलए राÕů के कानून को छोड़कर िकसी भी Óयिĉ को अपनी Öवतंýता से वंिचत नहé िकया जाना चािहए । वजêिनया
कì घोषणा का अमेåरकì संिवधान (1787) के ÿाłपकŌ पर बहòत ÿभाव पड़ा ।
मनुÕय और नागåरक के अिधकारŌ कì Āांसीसी घोषणा, 1789, ने कई अिधकारŌ को माÆयता दी, जैसे िक, सभी
पुŁष समान पैदा होते ह§; राºय मनुÕय के ÿाकृितक अिधकारŌ को संरि±त करेगा, जो Öवतंýता, संपि°, सुर±ा और
उÂपीड़न के ÿितरोध ह§; कानून Ĭारा िनधाªåरत मामलŌ को छोड़कर िकसी को भी िगरÉतार या िहरासत म¤ नहé िलया
जा सकता है; दोष िसĦ होने तक सभी पुŁषŌ को िनदōष माना जाना चािहए; िवचार, राय और ÿेस कì Öवतंýता;
धमª कì Öवतंýता; सभी नागåरकŌ कì सहमित के िबना कोई कर नहé, दूसरŌ को नुकसान नहé पहòंचाने कì ±मता
शािमल है; इसिलए ÿÂयेक Óयिĉ के अिधकारŌ का लाभ उठाने कì कोई सीमा नहé है, िसवाय इसके िक समाज के
अÆय सदÖयŌ को समान अिधकारŌ के आनंद के िलए आĵÖत करते ह§ । कानून ही केवल इन सीमाओं को िनधाªåरत
कर¤ ।
सोिवयत łस के 1917 कì बोÐशेिवक øांित अिधकारŌ कì आधुिनक अवधारणा के िवकास म¤ एक और मील
का पÂथर थी । इसने अिधकारŌ कì अवधारणा के िलए सामािजक-आिथªक आयाम पेश िकए, जो अंúेजी, अमेåरकì
और Āांसीसी øांित कì घटनाओं और दÖतावेजŌ म¤ नहé देखे गए थे । जहां तीनŌ øांितयां, नागåरक और राजनीितक
अिधकारŌ कì पहली पीढ़ी पर जोर देती ह§, िजÆह¤ नकाराÂमक अिधकार भी कहा जाता है, łस कì अ³टूबर øांित
ने सामािजक- आिथªक अिधकारŌ को लोकिÿय बनाया जो सकाराÂमक अिधकार ह§ । इन अिधकारŌ को सकाराÂमक
कहा जाता है ³यŌिक उनके कायाªÆवयन के िलए राºय Ĭारा संसाधनŌ और सकाराÂमक कारªवाई कì आवÔयकता
होती है ।
इस ÿकार, यह Öवीकार िकया जाना चािहए िक इन घोषणाओं, घटनाओं और øांितयŌ म¤ से ÿÂयेक ने मानव
अिधकारŌ कì अवधारणा को आगे बढ़ाने और आकार देने म¤ महÂवपूणª योगदान िदया है । हालांिक, अपने समय
िकया जाता था । लेिकन इस ÿÖताव का महÂव यह था िक ये बताता है िक अंतरराÕůीय कानूनŌ के अÆतगªत
राºयŌ कì Öवतंýता म¤ कुछ सीमाएं थé और कोई भी राºय अपने नागåरकŌ से मनमाना दुÓयªवहार नहé कर सकता
। महान शिĉयŌ ने 19 वé शताÊदी के दौरान ओटोमन साăाºय को मÅय पूवª और बाÐकन म¤ अÐपसं ́यकŌ
को उÂपीिड़त करने से रोकने के िलए इस िसĦांत को लागू िकया था ।
ii. अंतराªÕůीय मानवीय कानून: - अंतराªÕůीय मानवतावादी कानून युĦ के कानूनŌ से संबंिधत कई संिधयŌ के
माÅयम से िवकिसत िकया गया था । 1864, 1906 और 1929 कì संिधयŌ ने सशľ संघषª के समय म¤
युĦभूिम म¤ सेनाओं म¤ घायल सैिनकŌ और समुþ म¤ घायल हòए सैिनकŌ के अिधकारŌ को िविनयिमत िकया ।
1864 कì संिध ने िचिकÂसा किमªयŌ और अÖपतालŌ के भी अिधकारŌ कì र±ा कì । और 1907 हेग कÆव¤शन
Ĭारा नागåरक आबादी को सुर±ा ÿदान कì गई थी और 1929 म¤ संिध Ĭारा युĦ के कैिदयŌ से संबंधी कानूनŌ
का िनमाªण िकया गया था । समय-समय पर इन संिधयŌ म¤ िनिहत कानूनŌ को संशोिधत और आधुिनक बनाया
गया है । चार िजनेवा सÌमेलनŌ का उĥेÔय सशľ बलŌ, युĦ के कैिदयŌ और नागåरक आबादी के बीमार और
घायल सदÖयŌ कì र±ा करना है ।
iii. गुलामी का उÆमूलन: - मानवािधकारŌ से संबंिधत पहली अंतराªÕůीय संिधयाँ धमª कì Öवतंýता कì Öवीकृित
(जैसे 1648 के वेÖटफेिलया कì संिध) और दासता के उÆमूलन से जुड़ी हòई थé । 1815 म¤ िवयना कì कांúेस
Ĭारा दासता कì पहले ही िनंदा कì जा चुकì थी और गुलामी के उÆमूलन पर कई अंतराªÕůीय संिधयाँ 19 वé
शताÊदी के उ°राधª म¤ िदखाई दé (जैसे 1862 कì वािशंगटन संिध, āसेÐस के दÖतावेज, 1867 और 1890
म¤ और 1885 म¤ बिलªन म¤) । िāटेन और Āांस के बीच पहली बार पेåरस शांित संिध (1814) म¤ दास ÿथा
कì िनंदा कì गई थी । राÕů संघ के तहत 1926 म¤ गुलामŌ के Óयापार और गुलामी को दबाने के िलए अिधवेशन
को अपनाया गया था । यह सÌमेलन अभी भी गुलामी कì ÿथा को ÿितबंिधत करने वाला मूल दÖतावेज है,
हालांिक 1953 म¤ इसे एक ÿोटोकॉल Ĭारा संशोिधत िकया गया था और 1956 म¤ एक पूरक दÖतावेज़ बनाकर
समÖयाओं का समाधान िकया गया था । इस दÖतावेज़ म¤ उन कृÂयŌ को पåरभािषत िकया गया जो आधुिनक
दुिनया म¤ दासता का िनमाªण करते ह§ ।
iv. अंतराªÕůीय ®म मानक: - अंतराªÕůीय ®म संगठन, जो 1919 से अिÖतÂव म¤ है और 1946 म¤ संयुĉ राÕů
कì एक िविशĶ एज¤सी बन गई, सामािजक और ®िमक ±ेýŌ म¤ अपनी गितिविधयŌ के माÅयम से सामािजक
Æयाय ÿाĮ करना चाहता है । मानव अिधकारŌ के िलए अंतराªÕůीय ®म संगठन कì कारªवाई का आधार अंतराªÕůीय
®म मानकŌ कì Öथापना और अंतराªÕůीय ®म संगठन के सदÖय राºयŌ Ĭारा इन मानकŌ के कायाªÆवयन कì
देखरेख है । अंतराªÕůीय ®म संगठन ने ®म मानकŌ पर 150 से अिधक सÌमेलनŌ और िसफाåरशŌ को अपनाया
है । ये सÌमेलन, जब राºयŌ Ĭारा पुिĶ कì जाती है, उन पर बाÅयकारी होते ह§ । सÌमेलन अंतराªÕůीय ®म संगठन
के बुिनयादी मानवािधकार िचंता से संबंिधत ह§, जैसे िक ®िमक संघ कì Öवतंýता, जबरन और बाल ®म को
समाĮ करना, रोजगार और ÓयवसायŌ म¤ भेदभाव से मुिĉ । उÆहŌने ऐसे ±ेýŌ म¤ काम कì िÖथित, Óयावसाियक
सुर±ा और ÖवाÖÃय, भुगतान आधाåरत छुåĘयŌ और सामािजक सुर±ा, औīोिगक संबंधŌ, रोजगार नीित और
Óयावसाियक मागªदशªन के ÿावधान और मिहलाओं, ÿवािसयŌ और Öवदेशी और आिदवासी लोग जैसे िवशेष
समूहŌ कì सुर±ा के िलए मानक भी िनधाªåरत िकए ह§ ।
v. राÕů संघ के तहत अÐपसं ́यकŌ कì सुर±ा: - पूवê यूरोपीय और बाÐकन राºयŌ के साथ 1919 के शांित
समझौतŌ से अÐपसं ́यकŌ कì संिधयŌ के ÿवतªन कì िनगरानी के िलए राÕů संघ को एक जनादेश िदया गया था
। इन संिधयŌ म¤ अÐपसं ́यकŌ कì सुर±ा से संबंिधत ÿावधान शािमल थे । संघ कì इन संिधयŌ म¤ अÐपसं ́यकŌ
के शासन के संबंध म¤ पोल§ड, सवō-øोएिशया-Öलोवेिनयाई राºय, रोमािनया, úीस और चेकोÖलोवािकया को
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Chapter-01: Understanding Human Rights:
Three Generations of Rights
THEORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights, as mentioned earlier, are one of the significant features of our political
reality. They have evolved out of self-respect. It is inherent to all humans without
any discrimination of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, and colour,
etc. In short, we may mention that, human rights are the basic rights and freedom of
all human, it includes the right to life, liberty, freedom of thought, expression and
equality before the law, among others.
There are several theories which are relevant to the concept of human rights-
1. Theory of natural rights
2. Theory of social rights
3. Theory of legal rights
4. Theory of historical rights
5. Theory of economic rights
We will be discussing these theories one by one.
1. Theory of Natural Rights: - The concept of the natural rights evolved out of
the concept of natural law. It regards that human beings are natural beings and
therefore every individual enters into society with basic rights that are
provided to them by nature, and no government can deny these rights.
Since, people are the creatures of nature, they live and organise the society on the
basis of rules and principles laid down by the nature. When the idea of individualism
developed in 17th century, theory of natural law and rights started focusing on the
rights of the individuals. It cannot be violated by anyone or any government, because
every individual is a natural being, having some natural rights. Therefore, we can
mention that human rights are the child of the ancient natural rights.
The expression of this theory can be found in the writings of John Locke. He argued
that all individuals were gifted by nature with the inherent rights to life, liberty and
property of their own and these could not be abolished by the state. John Locke
claimed that every individual has three natural rights- right to life, liberty and
property. Two things are evident from his views:
- Individual is capable of exercising his choice,
- Legitimacy of government not only depends on the will of the people, but
also upon governments willingness and ability to protect individual’s natural
rights.
Human beings have carried the same rights that they had enjoyed earlier in natural
society, into their political society. Thus, those rights shall be recognised.
Other thinkers who supported the concept of natural rights were- Jean Jacques
Rousseau, Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine.
Human rights, are therefore, borrowed from the theory of natural rights. Individual,
being a natural creature inherits certain rights from the nature. And these rights shall
be provided to every individual as a human being.
2. Theory of Social Rights: - Social rights are moral, legal or societal rules and
an understanding of what is necessary to fulfil people’s social needs and to
promote social inclusion. Social rights are concerned with how people live
and work together and fulfil the basic necessities of life. They are based on
the ideas of equality and guaranteed access to essential social and economic
goods, services and opportunities.
As the law may change from time to time, the substance of rights also
changes with time. There can be no fixed rights in a society.
According to this theory, rights are created and maintained by the state. The state is
the only source of right and outside the state, an individual has no right at all.
The major exponents of this theory are- John Austin, Thomas Hobbes, Jeremy
Bentham.
Human rights flow from this concept of legal rights, as any right that is legal in
nature becomes binding. And it is the state's responsibility to provide those rights.
Therefore, having a legal nature for any human right will ensure that those rights are
provided by the state to every individual without any discrimination.
4. Theory of Historical Rights: - Historical theory of rights holds that rights are
the product of a long historical process. They differ from state to state and
from time to time because of the different levels of historical development of
a society. This theory originated in 18th century. According to this theory,
rights are the product of history and originate in its customs that have passed
from one generation to another. It gives emphasis to customs and consider
them fundamental to the growth and development of human being, as they are
maintained by a long unbroken custom and have been followed by
generations.
The greatest supporter of historical theory of rights was Edmund Burke.
Historical theory of rights is important because it suggests that the state cannot create
rights at its own will. The state must recognize those rights which have already been
in long standing usage and custom.
5. Theory of Economic Rights: - This theory finds its inspiration in the
teachings of Karl Marx. As Marx had divided the whole society into two
opposing classes- the exploiters and the exploited. And according to Marx,
the state is an instrument for the exploitation of the poor. Therefore, this
theory holds that whatever laws will be made and whatever rights will be
provided will be biased towards the richer class.
In a capitalist society, the aim and nature of rights are to promote and foster the
interests and privileges of the dominant economic group that owns all the economic
forces. And for the masses, rights are the instruments of their enslavement. This
theory of rights believe that rights can exist and flourish only in a classless society
where all are equal and no one is an exploiter. The main supporters of this theory
are- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
All these theories form a base for the recognition of the human rights. The
description of theories of rights express the fact that rights are originated inherently
in human beings. However, these are helpful in the development of human and
therefore there was a need to recognise these basic rights as human rights.
Most of the human rights have originated from these rights, as these are the basic
rights that help an individual to develop and also live their life with respect and
dignity.
In the next series, we will be discussing about the evolution of Human Rights and
their historical development.
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Human Rights in Comparative Perspective.
Course: Political science (BA Honours)
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Sem-V. Human Rights in a Comparative Perspective. DSE-01
1
Chapter-01: Understanding Human Rights
Evolution of Human Rights
The idea of rights and duties of citizens is as old as the concept of the state. As man
is a social being and cannot live outside society, the problem of rights arose
involving man’s relations with other individuals in our society, and his relations with
the state and the government. Through these relations men evolved certain norms of
social behaviour, which over centuries, came to be known as Human Rights. One
may find their origin in ancient Greek and Roman political systems in Europe,
Confucian system in China, the Islamic political system in the Muslim world and the
Panchayat System in India. But the concept of rights in those systems was not fully
developed and understood in the sense that we know them today.
Many important events and revolutions contributed towards the development of
human rights. The earliest charters of human rights are to be found among the three
British constitutional documents, namely, the Magna Carta (1215), the Petition of
Rights (1628), and the Bill of Rights (1689) adopted after the Glorious Revolution
of 1688. These three documents were the forerunners of the modern bills of rights.
They imposed restrictions on the powers of the King and his arbitrary rules. It may
be recalled that in the 17th century England, there were conflicts and tensions
between the Parliament and the King over his arbitrary rule. These struggles led to
the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This Revolution is also known as Bloodless
Revolution. James II, the king was forced to abdicate the throne. Following the
revolution, the Parliament passed the Bill of Rights in 1689. This bill declared the
suspending and dispensing powers of the Crown as illegal. It prohibited the levying
of taxes or the maintenance of standing army in peacetime by the Crown without
Parliamentary consent. The Glorious Revolution, thus, provided a precedent that
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