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Riassunto capitolo 3 libro A orale sid
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the chapter is to analyze the changing social and
economic context of British politics.
Studying British politics without considering the social and
economic framework is limited.
Political institutions need to be situated within the wider social
and economic framework.
Factors like support for political parties and General Election
outcomes are influenced by the social and economic context.
The chapter will discuss the politics of the 2007-8 banking
crisis, recession, and austerity economics.
The economic impact of the 2020 coronavirus pandemic will
also be addressed.
British politics was once studied in isolation with little focus on
international developments.
European integration, Brexit, and the coronavirus outbreak
have highlighted the globalized nature of politics.
The banking crisis and recession had domestic and
international dimensions.
Leaving the EU does not guarantee complete executive control
or parliamentary sovereignty for the UK.
Britain has declined from being a dominant power to a lesser
power in the twenty-first century.
Britain still plays a significant role in international bodies like
the United Nations and NATO.
Domestic factors impact British politics while recognizing the
complex and interdependent world.
The chapter will discuss social characteristics, including social
class, women's role, aging society, multiculturalism, and
ethnicity.
The economic context will be examined, including historical
decline, the banking crisis, recession, austerity, Brexit, and the
impact of the coronavirus pandemic.
SOCIAL CONTEXT: STABILITY AND IDENTITY
England has remained relatively stable in its political
arrangements compared to other countries.
Historical events like the Magna Carta, Wars of the Roses,
English Civil War, and Glorious Revolution shaped Britain's
constitutional monarchy and the dominance of Protestantism.
Britain managed industrialization and urbanization more
smoothly than other countries, avoiding political crises.
The franchise (vote) was gradually extended until 1918 when
all men over 21 and women over 30 gained the right to vote
(parity established in 1928)
Class divisions in Britain were relatively manageable, with
limited risk of political revolution (feature of satire as the Frost
Report sketch).
Wales (political union in 1542) expressed nationalism more
culturally than politically, with demands for Welsh language
tuition rather than outright independence.
Devolution was granted to Wales in 1997, with increasing
support over the years (2011).
Scotland joined the Union in 1707 but saw growing nationalism
in the 1960s.
The Scottish Parliament was established in 1999 and demands
for greater independence persist.
The political future of Scotland and its potential separation
from the Union is a major constitutional challenge, voted to
remain in the EU.
Ireland's Union with the UK occurred in 1801, and the South
gained independence in 1922.
Northern Ireland experienced recurring violence due to
religious divides between those wanting a united Ireland and
those wishing to remain part of the Union, main social divide is
religion.
The UK has shown a strong degree of economic and social
stability, except for conflicts in Ireland.
The British class system consists of three social classes: the
upper class or aristocracy (possession of large, landed estates
end genealogy), the middle class, and the working class.
The aristocracy adapted to change and incorporated the rising
middle class into the political system, avoiding social conflict
(thanks to paternalism and “care”).
The middle class emerged with the Industrial Revolution and
has grown with deindustrialization and the rise of a service
economy.
The middle class is associated with the idea of meritocracy,
although critics argue that social and economic barriers still
exist.
The working class, traditionally the largest social class, has
declined due to changes in manufacturing and the need for a
more skilled labor force.
Distinctions between real and subjective notions of social class
and between economic and psychological understandings are
important.
Perceptions of social class have changed, with a shift towards
identifying as middle class and a belief that social class
matters less.
Recent surveys suggest a more complex social class structure
with seven categories (definined by a combinations of capitals:
social, economic, cultural), including the elite, established
middle class, and precariat.
The fragmentation of class-based voting for political parties
has been attributed to the enlargement of the middle class.
The Labour Party has faced challenges as its traditional
working-class base has shrunk, leading to the emergence of
New Labour.
In recent elections, Labour has solidified middle-class support
while losing working-class support, culminating in working-
class voters largely supporting the Conservatives in the 2019
general election.
IS THERE AN UNDERCLASS?
The existence of an 'underclass' has been a persistent feature
of political debate since the 1970s.
The term 'underclass' is used to describe those who are poor
and live in depressed urban areas, often associated with
psychological characteristics and criminal behavior (apart
morally).
Advocates of the 'New Right' in the US and UK argue that the
welfare state encourages dependency and undermines values
like hard work and self-help.
Both the New Right (Reagan and Thatcher) and New Labour
have sought to strengthen the responsibilities of those on
benefits and impose conditions for welfare payments
Public opinion toward welfare has hardened compared to the
post-war consensus era, with more people attributing poverty
to individual failings rather than government responsibility.
Critics argue that wider social and economic factors, such as
globalization and the decline of manufacturing, contribute to
high unemployment and low-wage opportunities.
Some commentators highlight the demonization of the poor by
politicians and sections of the media, exemplified by the
pejorative term 'chav' used against the working class.
There is ongoing debate and fluidity in public opinion regarding
welfare and attitudes towards poverty and inequality.
MULTICULTURAL BRITAIN
The multicultural nature of England and Britain has had a significant
impact on the sense of English identity and society as a whole. Here
are the key points related to this topic:
The decline of church attendance and the rise of secularism
have challenged the once-dominant position of Anglicanism in
Britain. Church attendance has been decreasing since the end
of World War II, with a growing number of people identifying as
non-religious. (post-religious or anti-christian culture)
Britain has become more multicultural due to immigration,
particularly from former colonies and Eastern European
countries. This has led to increased diversity in terms of faiths
and cultures.
Improved healthcare standards and reductions in poverty have
contributed to longer life expectancy, with more elderly
individuals living into their 80s and 90s. However, there are
considerable variations in life expectancy between different
socioeconomic groups.
The aging population poses challenges related to the financing
of state pension schemes and the strain on private pension
schemes. The cost of supporting an elderly society forms a
significant portion of the government's welfare bill, which is
expected to increase over time.
As the costs associated with caring for the elderly population
rise, the retirement age has been increasing, leading to the
need for the working population to work longer.
While the aging society is often discussed in negative terms
due to the associated costs, there are positive aspects as well.
Older individuals can contribute to economic and social well-
being through their knowledge, skills, and participation in
caring and charity work.
The elderly population has been particularly vulnerable to the
impacts of the coronavirus pandemic in 2020.
The issue of how to finance the costs of an elderly society is
complex and unpopular, leading to delays in making serious
decisions. Governments often focus on short-term
considerations, which can hinder the development of
sustainable solutions.
The topic of social care and how to address the challenges
posed by the aging population has been a significant source of
political debate in recent years; it has influenced the outcomes
of general elections: Theresa May's comments on the issue
contributed to her loss of majority in the 2017 General
Election.
THE CHANGING ROLE OF WOMEN
The extension of the vote to women was a pivotal moment in
the feminization of British politics. Women were granted the
right to vote in local elections from the 1880s, and their
involvement in the war effort during World War I led to the
granting of voting rights in general elections in 1918.
Despite the progress made, the representation of women in
politics has remained lower compared to men. Positive
measures have been implemented to address this imbalance,
including women-only shortlists in the Labour Party and efforts
by the Conservatives to encourage more women to stand for
election. In the 2019 General Election, 34% of elected MPs
were female, the highest number ever recorded.
Margaret Thatcher became Britain's first woman Prime Minister
in 1979, followed by Theresa May (2016-2019) and Nicola
Sturgeon, who has been the First Minister of Scotland since
2014.
Beyond political representation, the feminist movement has
also focused on equal economic and social rights, particularly
in terms of equal pay. Legislation has been introduced to
enforce equal pay, but women still earn less than men on
average, and fewer women hold top positions in various
sectors.
While the majority of women are now in employment, a
significant proportion of them work part-time, compared to a
smaller percentage of men. Part-time work and lower average
pay contribute to the gender pay gap.
LGBT+
Until the 1960s, homosexual acts between consenting male
adults were illegal in the UK, and prior to 1861, they were
punishable by death. In 1885, legislation was introduced that
criminalized homosexual acts for males. It wasn't until the
1960s that attitudes began to shift, leading to the
decriminalization of homosexuality.
The Wolfenden Report, published in 1957, recommended the
decriminalization of homosexuality, and the Homosexual Law
Reform Society campaigned for this cause. The Sexual
Offences Act of 1967, introduced by backbench MP Leo Abse
In relative terms, the British economy continued to expand but
at a slower rate compared to other major economies.
In the late 1950s, under the Conservative government of
Harold Macmillan, there was a shift towards greater
government intervention and planning. Macmillan introduced a
more corporatist phase of economic policy, involving business
leaders, trade unions, and the government. The National
Economic Development Council was established for this
purpose.
Reversing the economic decline has been a major topic of
debate since the 1960s, with two phases identified: greater
government intervention and planning, followed by a move
towards a more free-market approach.
In 1964, the Labour government led by Harold Wilson
expanded on this agenda by creating new government
departments, such as the Ministry of Technology and the
Department of Economic Affairs. They also introduced the
National Plan, which aimed to achieve higher economic growth
through increased government intervention.
In the early 1970s, Conservative leader Edward Heath initially
moved towards a more free-market approach but later
reverted to a more interventionist stance due to economic
challenges.
When Labour returned to power in 1974, they implemented
the Social Contract, a deal between trade unions and the
government. The agreement involved wage restraint in
exchange for the government implementing new welfare
measures. The goal was to control inflation by controlling
wages, although there were differing opinions on the causes of
inflation.
The 1970s witnessed a period of high inflation, and the Social
Contract eventually broke down in 1978–79 with the "Winter of
Discontent," characterized by widespread strikes for higher
pay.
Prior to 1979, government intervention in the economy was
viewed positively, and it was seen as a tool to stimulate
growth and raise living standards.
In 1979, a right-wing Conservative government came into
power, marking a shift towards a more critical view of
government intervention. The "New Right" advocated for free-
market principles, blaming government intervention for
Britain's poor economic performance.
The new policy involved cutting taxes, reducing government
expenditure and borrowing, curbing trade union powers, and
promoting a free-market economy.
The transition to a free-market system faced challenges,
including a recession in the early 1980s and rising
unemployment. Inequality also increased despite economic
growth.
The arrival of New Labour in government marked the
acceptance of Thatcherite economic reforms. They granted
independence to the Bank of England, continued with
privatization initiatives, and introduced the Private Finance
Initiative.
New Labour also implemented interventionist measures to
reduce unemployment, such as the New Deal. They increased
spending on healthcare and education, introduced the National
Minimum Wage, and implemented various taxation measures
for redistribution.
There is ongoing debate on whether New Labour did enough to
challenge the Thatcherite economic legacy, with some critics
claiming they maintained a similar economic framework, while
others view their approach as a modified version of
Scandinavian social democracy.
Prior to 1979, government intervention in the economy was
viewed positively, and it was seen as a tool to stimulate
growth and raise living standards.
In 1979, a right-wing Conservative government came into
power, marking a shift towards a more critical view of
government intervention. The "New Right" advocated for free-
market principles, blaming government intervention for
Britain's poor economic performance.
The new policy involved cutting taxes, reducing government
expenditure and borrowing, curbing trade union powers, and
promoting a free-market economy.
The economic approach of New Labour, which came into power
in 1997, has been debated. While it did not revert to a full
Keynesian strategy, it introduced limited state intervention
alongside economic liberal policies. Some have labeled this
approach the “Third Way”, combining economic liberal policies
with state intervention to achieve social objectives.
The British economy underwent significant changes from a
manufacturing-based sector to a service-based economy, with
the service sector becoming dominant by the early 2000s.
Despite the decline in manufacturing, Britain remains a leading
manufacturing country, particularly in pharmaceuticals and
aerospace.
TEN YEARS OF AUSTERITY
As manufacturing declined in Britain, politicians from both
major parties emphasized the importance of the financial
services sector, particularly during Margaret Thatcher's tenure.
Thatcher relaxed regulations on banks and credit policies,
leading to the significant growth of the City and the financial
services sector in the 1980s.
The Labour Party, initially cautious of the City, aimed to win its
support after the 1992 General Election defeat.
In 1997, Gordon Brown granted operational independence to
the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) of the Bank of England
and established the Financial Services Authority (FSA) to
regulate banks and financial institutions.
During the 13 years of successive Labour governments (1997-
2010), there was a significant reliance on the financial services
sector, leading to criticism of neglecting the manufacturing
sector.
The high-risk culture and increased personal debt in the City
contributed to economic growth but also posed risks.
The 2007-2008 financial crisis originated from the inability to
finance subprime mortgages in the United States, leading to
banking collapses in America and Britain, a subsequent
recession, and a crisis in the Eurozone.
The economic context after 2008 was less favorable, and the
reasons for the downturn were present in the previous decade.
Understanding the post-2008 crisis and prolonged austerity
requires examining two questions.
WHAT IS THE MEANING OF CRISIS?
The term "crisis" is often associated with a dramatic and
uncertain moment, with potential economic and political
implications.
Journalists perceive crises as frequent and temporary
occurrences, while academic historians and political scientists
view them as long-term impasses.
Recent economic crises, including the 2008 financial crisis,
Brexit, and the coronavirus pandemic, are considered more
long-term in nature and pose challenges in finding solutions.
Recessions can take various shapes: V-shaped, U-shaped, W-
shaped (double-dip recession), or the worst form, L-shaped.
The post-2008 economic context in the UK initially experienced
a double-dip recession, and the long-term impact of the
coronavirus pandemic is feared to result in an L-shaped
recession.
Recovery and the return to pre-crisis conditions are uncertain,
with ongoing economic upheavals and setbacks.
Experts predict a major economic recession in the aftermath of
the pandemic, possibly comparable to the levels of mass
unemployment seen in the 1980s or even the 1930s.
WHAT IS THE SOLUTION?
The Conservative Party's response to the economic crisis has
been primarily based on austerity measures. They argue that
the root cause of Britain's economic problems was excessive
government borrowing, leading to a lack of funds to stimulate
economic activity after the 2007-2008 crash. Consequently,
public spending has been steadily reduced since 2010.
The coronavirus outbreak from early 2020 had an immediate
and potentially larger-scale economic impact than Brexit. A
global recession is expected, leading to domestic austerity
measures and long-term financial burdens for future
generations.
The pandemic is predicted to result in the UK's worst economic
crisis in approximately 300 years, with severe negative effects
until at least 2024.
The crisis necessitates a significant role for the central state
and high levels of public spending and borrowing to support
key public services like the NHS.
The pandemic has shifted the ideological and political
landscape towards a more interventionist approach,
challenging the previously envisioned liberalized and
deregulated economic future.
Chancellor Rishi Sunak's emergency budget in mid-
demonstrated the government's expensive and interventionist
response to the crisis, including the extension of the furlough
scheme.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The British economy, once a powerhouse of manufacturing,
has experienced significant changes and uncertainties,
particularly due to the 2007-2008 financial crisis, the pressures
of globalization, and over-reliance on the financial services
sector.
The long-term question of what kind of economy Britain should
become remains unanswered, with further uncertainty
introduced by Brexit and the coronavirus pandemic.
The social structure of British society has evolved, with a
decreased emphasis on social class as a defining factor and a
more diamond-shaped structure, with an inflated middle
stratum, a few at the top, and a few at the bottom.
Debates over the future of British society focus on addressing
the reasons behind social mobility challenges and questioning
the fairness of vast salaries for those at the top.
Ethnicity, multiculturalism, changing gender roles, and an
aging population have emerged as additional social cleavages,
posing both opportunities and challenges.
British society has generally adapted effectively to ongoing
challenges, although concerns about the pace of change have
been raised.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The social and economic context of British politics is shaped by
wider international developments, as Britain is no longer
isolated and is influenced by changes beyond its borders.
The British economy and society have undergone significant
changes. The class system has become more fragmented, and
the importance of class as a defining factor has declined.
Political parties need to appeal to a more complex electorate.
Other social distinctions, such as changing gender roles, an
aging population, ethnicity, multiculturalism, and perceptions
of nationhood, have gained importance in British society.
The economic context in Britain has been characterized by a
sense of decline, transitioning from a manufacturing to a
service-based economy with a focus on the financial services
sector.
Periods of economic boom have been interspersed with
periods of recession, with the recession following the Global
Financial Crisis being particularly deep. The future is uncertain,
especially considering the impacts of Brexit and the
coronavirus outbreak.
GENDER AND POLITICS
INTRODUCTION
Gender in British politics has often been considered a
secondary topic in political debates.
Women gained the right to vote in 1918, and the Parliament
(Qualification of Women) Act allowed women to stand as
candidates and be elected as MPs.
Countess Constance Markievicz was the first woman elected in
1918 but did not take her seat due to Sinn Féin's abstentionist
policy.
Nancy Astor became the first woman to sit in the House of
Commons in 1919.
In 1928 (with the Representation of the People (Equal
Franchise) Act ) women gained electoral equality with men,
allowing all women to vote at the age of 21.
The number of female MPs rose slowly, with 15 elected in 1931
and 24 in 1945.
Until 1987, the proportion of female MPs remained below 5%.
In 1992, the share of women elected to the House of Commons
increased to 9%, and it doubled to 18% in 1997.
Since then, the number of female MPs has increased but at a
slower pace.
The House of Commons currently ranks thirty-ninth globally in
terms of female representation.
The majoritarian electoral system and cultures of sexism
within the Conservative Party and the Labour Party have
contributed to the low representation of women.
The implementation of gender quotas, such as all-women
shortlists, has helped increase female representation,
particularly within the Labour Party.
Left-wing parties, such as Labour, have been better at
representing women, the LGBTQ community, and
ethnic/religious minorities compared to conservative and
liberal parties.
Labour has had the highest overall number of female MPs, with
55% of the total elected as Labour MPs and 31% as
Conservative MPs.
The Conservative Party has made progress in increasing
female representation, with the number of female
Conservative MPs nearly quadrupling between 2005 and 2020.
The Liberal Democrats have historically had a low percentage
of female MPs, but they implemented all-women shortlists in
key seats in 2017, resulting in 64% female MPs after the 2019
election.
The Conservative Party opposes all-women shortlists, citing
potential feelings of resentment among party associations.
Women have also held prestigious and powerful positions in
the House of Commons, including Speaker of the House,
Leader of the House, and select committee chairs.
Betty Boothroyd became the first woman Speaker of the House
of Commons in 1992, with Betty Harvie Anderson serving as
the first female deputy Speaker from 1970 to 1973.
The introduction of a gender quota in 2010 contributed to an
increase in the number of women elected as deputy Speakers.
Four women have served as Leaders of the House of
Commons, 3 Labourists
Female MPs have become chairpersons of select committees,
with Marion Roe becoming the first female chair of a
departmental select committee in 1992.
The number of select committees chaired by women has
slowly increased, but a majority are still chaired by men.
There is a gender disparity between parties in putting forward
candidates for committee chairs, with a higher proportion of
women candidates from the Labour party.
Women have been slightly overrepresented on select
committees relative to their proportion in the House of
Commons, but they are more likely to be assigned to
committees dealing with "feminised" policy areas.
Female committee membership is concentrated in certain
committees, with the home affairs committee chaired by
Yvette Cooper having a strong female membership.
The home affairs committee's feminisation may be attributed
to its medium-status categorization in UK politics compared to
foreign affairs.
The International Trade and Exiting the European Union select
committees have predominantly male chairs and members,
with poor gender balance.
Questo documento è stato utile?
Riassunto capitolo 3 libro A orale sid
Corso: Lingua inglese (75898)
54 Documenti
Gli studenti hanno condiviso 54 documenti in questo corso
Università: Università di Bologna
Questo documento è stato utile?
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the chapter is to analyze the changing social and
economic context of British politics.
Studying British politics without considering the social and
economic framework is limited.
Political institutions need to be situated within the wider social
and economic framework.
Factors like support for political parties and General Election
outcomes are influenced by the social and economic context.
The chapter will discuss the politics of the 2007-8 banking
crisis, recession, and austerity economics.
The economic impact of the 2020 coronavirus pandemic will
also be addressed.
British politics was once studied in isolation with little focus on
international developments.
European integration, Brexit, and the coronavirus outbreak
have highlighted the globalized nature of politics.
The banking crisis and recession had domestic and
international dimensions.
Leaving the EU does not guarantee complete executive control
or parliamentary sovereignty for the UK.
Britain has declined from being a dominant power to a lesser
power in the twenty-first century.
Britain still plays a significant role in international bodies like
the United Nations and NATO.
Domestic factors impact British politics while recognizing the
complex and interdependent world.
The chapter will discuss social characteristics, including social
class, women's role, aging society, multiculturalism, and
ethnicity.
The economic context will be examined, including historical
decline, the banking crisis, recession, austerity, Brexit, and the
impact of the coronavirus pandemic.
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