- Information
- AI Chat
ED493998 - I just need it.
Civil Engineering (BSCE 01)
Ateneo de Davao University
Recommended for you
Preview text
A Theoretical Framework for Organizing the Effect of the Internet on
Cognitive Development
Genevieve Marie Johnson, Ph. Department of Psychology, Grant MacEwan College, Canada johnsong@macewan
Abstract : The number of children and adolescents accessing the Internet as well as the amount of time online are steadily increasing. The most common online activities include playing video games, navigating web sites, and communicating via chat rooms, email, and instant messaging. A theoretical framework for understanding the effects of Internet use on cognitive development is presented. The proposed framework, based on the cognitive information processing model, the sociocultural perspective, and the PASS cognitive processing model, organizes previous research in terms of the cognitive consequences of common online activities. From a cognitive-developmental perspective, the Internet is a cultural tool that influences cognitive processes and an environmental stimulus that contributes to the formation of specific cognitive architecture.
Media is a contraction of the term media of communication , referring to organized dissemination of information and entertainment such as newspapers, magazines, film, radio, television, and the World Wide Web (McChesney, 2004). In a comprehensive survey of media use in preschool children, Rideout, Vandewater, and Wartella (2003) reported that 99% live in a home with a television, half have more than two televisions in their home, and 36% have a television in their bedroom. “Nearly half (48%) of all children six and under have used a computer, and more than one in four (30%) have played video games” (p. 4). Given such early and extensive use, the impact of media on children is of considerable concern (Gentile & Walsh, 2002; Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2004).
Research on the impact of media on children’s development is subject to interpretation. Historically, panic surrounds the introduction of new technologies, particularly in relation to children and youth (Quigley & Blashki, 2003). Research conducted early in the social integration of new technologies is often “governed by the myths of general cultural pessimism” (Boehnke, Munch, & Hoffmann, 2002, p. 193). Not surprisingly, television is associated numerous undesirable developmental outcomes including aggression and obesity (Bushman & Huesmann, 2001; Dennison, Erb, & Jenkins, 2002; Gentile & Walsh, 2002), but viewing educational television improves academic and cognitive skills in children (Anderson et al., 2000; Anderson, Huston, Schmitt, Linebarger, & Wright, 2001; Bickham, Wright, & Huston, 2001; Naigles, & Mayeux, 2001). Video game playing is linked to social isolation and low self-esteem (Funk & Buchman, 1996), but Roe and Muijs (1998) reported that children who played video games for more than two hours a day read more than children who did not engage in such heavy use of video games. Healy (1998) claimed that “more and more college-age students are addicted to their computers” (p. 197), but recreational computer use is associated with increased academic achievement (Rocheleau, 1995). Public anxiety surrounds children’s exposure to pornography and sexual predators via the Internet (Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, 2001), but schools have a mandate to enhance Internet access for children of all ages (Alberta SuperNet Research Alliance, 2005; Tarpley, 2001).
Such contradictory research findings and apparent inconsistencies between research and practice may be the consequence of inadequate theoretical frameworks for understanding the effects of media on children’s development (Boehnke et al., 2002) as well as failure to organize the effects of media relative to developmental domain. Cognitive theory, for example, is prerequisite to analysis of the effects of media on children’s cognitive development.
Theories of Cognitive Development
Cognition is a general term encompassing mental processes such as attention, perception, comprehension, memory, and problems solving (Solso, MacLin, & MacLin, 2005). Cognitive development refers to changes in cognition over
time. Theoretical frameworks for understanding cognition and cognitive development include: the Cognitive Information Processing Model, the sociocultural perspective, and the PASS Cognitive Processing Model.
The Cognitive Information Processing Model
The Information Processing (IP) Model, as the name implies, conceptualized human cognition in terms of computer functions (Siegler & Alibali, 2004). The person (i., computer) has biologically predetermined neurological improvements (i., hardware upgrades) and learning results in increased knowledge as well as enhanced strategies for effective use of knowledge. IP assumes environmental stimuli move along a conveyer belt of cognitive processing. First, sensory stimuli register in the appropriate neurological sites. Attention to selected stimuli results in further processing which leads to perception. Perception moves the now meaningful stimuli (i., information) to various levels of memory (i., data storage) where subsequent processing ensures that it is available when needed. All stages of cognitive processing are facilitated by meta-cognition which includes learning strategies and monitoring the effectiveness of processes (Solso et al., 2005). According to the IP perspective, as children development, they become more able to focus attention on relevant stimuli, they have greater capacity to remember (i., store information), they recognize and interpret more stimuli due to increased knowledge base (i., stored information), and meta-cognition becomes more sophisticated which improves the efficiency of all aspects of cognitive processing (Atkinson, & Shiffrin, 1968). This results in individuals who are progressively more able to function effectively in their environments (Klahr & MacWhinney, 1998).
The Sociocultural Perspective on Cognitive Development
The sociocultural perspective on cognitive development maintains that social and cultural activities mediate human interaction which determines cognitive structures. Vygotsky, the central theorist associated with the sociocultural perspective, “conceptualized development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes” (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192). Vygotsky (1978) proposed that all higher mental processes originate in social processes and that such processes can only be understood in terms of the tools of the culture. Cultural tools refer to both physical artifacts (e., printing press, abacus, telephone, computer) and socio-cognitive constructions such as signs, symbols, and language (Wink & Putney, 2002). Children develop cognitive structures in response to the use of cultural tools and, particularly, in response to the use of language. All languages have words for concepts and objects that are important to the culture (e., winter and snow); other languages have no words for the same concepts and objects. According to Vygotsky, language controls and is controlled by cognition. Further, if a culture provides children with, for example, Roman numerals for representing quantity, mathematical problem solving is limited. In this regard, the use of language and other cultural tools creates ways of thinking. From a sociocultural perspective, as children accumulate experience with people and things in their cultural and social environments, they become progressively more able to function effectively with the tools and corresponding thought processes required in their environments (Wertsch, 1991).
The PASS Cognitive Processing Model
The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) cognitive processing model links human cognition to specific neurological structures (Das & Naglieri, 2001). The PASS model describes human cognitive processes within a framework of three functional units (Das, 2002). The first functional unit, Attention-Arousal, located in the brain stem and reticular activating system, provides the brain with appropriate levels of arousal that direct attention. The second functional unit receives, analyzes, and stores information through simultaneous and successive processing. During simultaneous processing, associated with the occipital-parietal areas of the brain, each element (i., environmental stimulus) is interpreted in relation to every other element and meaning is attained when all elements are processed simultaneously. Successive processing, associated with the frontal-temporal areas of the brain, involves the interpretation of stimuli in a specific serial order (i., each component is related to the next in a series). To illustrate, entering a classroom and identifying an appropriate desk in which to sit requires simultaneous processing; comprehending language requires successive processing. The third functional unit, Planning, located in the frontal lobes of the brain, provides for the regulation of behavior such as asking questions, problem solving, self- monitoring, and impulse control (Luria, 1973). All of these cognitive processes result in an ever increasing base of knowledge which reflects “all information obtained from the cultural and social background of the individual, because this determines the form of mental activity” (Das, 2004, p. 10). According to the PASS model, as children development, neurological maturation and social experience result in increased ability to focus attention on relevant
always occur (Sims & Mayer, 2002). Blumberg and Sokol (2004) reported that as children learn to play video games, they are more likely to employ internal cognitive strategies (e., read instructions, trial and error) than external strategies (e., ask for help, watch someone). In a comprehensive review of the research, Subrahmanyam and colleagues (2001) concluded that cognitive skills such as attention, spatial imagery, and iconic representation are improved with video game use and that “children who play computer games can improve their visual intelligence” (Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield, & Gross, 2000, p. 128). Greene and Bavelier (2003) noted that on a range of visual attention skills, video game players out-performed those not exposed to video games. They concluded that “although video-game playing may seem to be rather mindless, it is capable of radically altering visual attention processing” (p. 536). From a cognitive- developmental perspective, playing online games enhances attention and concentration, visual perception, visual memory, simultaneous processing, meta-cognitive skills such as planning, and speed of information processing.
Web Site Navigation and Cognitive Development
Approximately one-third of the time that children are online, they report navigating web sites (Roberts et al., 2004). From a cognitive perspective, web sites share some of the characteristics of print material. Like books and magazines, web sites contain text and images that require interpretation. Although there are differences in the reading processes involved in decoding printed text and digital text, “there are also many similarities, with meaning- making being central to the process’ (Marsh & Thompson, 2001, p. 269). Unlike print material, web sites are, to varying degrees, interactive. Children make choices about accessing site features and links. “Electronic texts are malleable and fluid; they are not firm and fixed in the manner of printed books and magazines” (Desmond, 2001, p. 42). In this regard, navigating web sites makes cognitive demands beyond those associated with simply decoding text. Meta-cognitive processes such as planning, search strategies, and evaluation of information are exercised when accessing web sites (Tarpley, 2001).
Public librarians refer to web access as a “lifeline for children” and note that “the Web keeps getting bigger and better for youngsters, with more helpful and enjoyable sites popping up every day” (McDermott, 2000, p. 36). “About 72 percent of Internet users ages 5 – 17 (or 42 percent of all youth in this age range) use the Internet to complete school assignments” (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003, pp. vi-vii). Approximately 90% of parents claim “that the computer has had a positive impact on their child’s learning ability, while 79% say that it has improved their child’s homework quality” (Canadian Council on Social Development, 2001, p. 4). Turow (1999) reported that among adolescents, visiting web sites to complete schoolwork surpasses games as the most frequent online activity. According to early childhood educators, visiting web sites supports emergent literacy, builds problem-solving skills, and facilitates concept development (Gerzog & Haugland, 1999; Parette, Hourcade, & Heiple, 2000). From a cognitive perspective, accessing web sites enhances visual processing of information, increases language and literacy skills, builds knowledge base, and promotes meta-cognitive abilities such as planning and evaluation.
Online Communication and Cognitive Development
Berson and Berson (2005) note that the “Internet has provided an expansive environment that has the potential to offer instantaneous interaction with people worldwide” (p. 29). The Internet is an increasingly popular form of interpersonal communication, particularly among adolescents (Quigley & Blashki, 2003). Approximately one-quarter of the time that youth are online, they report communicating with others via instant messaging, chat, and email (Roberts et al., 2004). According to a recent survey by the National Center for Educational Statistics (2003) “65 percent of users (38 percent of all persons 5 – 17) use the Internet for e-mail or instant messaging” (p. vii). Research on the consequences of children’s Internet communication has focused, rather exclusively, on social development including online aggression and high risk behavior (Subrahmanyam et al., 2000, 2001; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004). While communication is a social event that emerges in response to human interaction, language is a cognitive process (Solso et al., 2005) and a cultural tool (Vygotsky, 1978).
Determining the cognitive demands of online communication requires consideration of the processes of communication and language. Language is defined as a set of shared symbols used by a group for purposes of communication (Bochner & Jones, 2003). Communication requires that one person sends a message (i., expressive language) and another person receives and understands that message (i., receptive language). All forms of expressive-receptive language (e., speak-
listen, write-read, sign-view) require similar neurological processing (Johnson, 2004). Currently, online communication primarily involves reading and typing text in real time (i., synchronous communication such as chat) or delayed time (i., asynchronous communication such as email). Dede and Kremer (1999) concluded that asynchronous communication provides “richer, more inclusive types of interchange” (p. 4); Hines and Pearl (2004) argued that synchronous communication has “the advantages of providing a greater sense of presence and generating spontaneity” (p. 34). From a cognitive perspective, both forms of online communication require expressive and receptive written language competencies which involve successive cognitive processing; synchronous communication may increase reaction time.
Internet Use and Cognitive Development: A Theoretical Framework
The most common online activities for children and adolescents include playing games, navigating web sites, and communicating with others (Roberts et al., 2004). While Internet technology evolves rapidly, current use is associated with visual input and tactile-kinesthetic output via manual manipulation of peripheral devices. During Internet use, language centers of the brain are active, particularly in online communication. Meta-cognitive abilities are required for a variety of online activities including playing games and navigating web sites. Internet games as well as synchronous communication increase cognitive processing speed (i., reaction time). Internet games require simultaneous processing; online communication requires successive processing. Internet games make extreme demands on visual and meta- cognition skills. Navigating web sites builds knowledge base and contributes to concept development. Figure 1 presents a theoretical framework for organizing the cognitive requirements of typical online behavior in children and adolescents. Such requirements, when satisfied, contribute to patterns of neurological activity which, particularly early in life, influence neurological architecture and cognitive processes.
According to Vygotsky (1978), human cognition creates tools and then, in turn, is influenced by those tools. The Internet is the most sophisticated tool that humans have yet to create and, as such, it may ultimately have greater cognitive impact than any previous cultural tool. As always, new technology is associated with apprehension and anxiety. For example, in the 19th century, “the telegraph enabled a young woman, against her father’s wishes, to maintain a flirtation with a number of men on the wire” (Quigley & Blashki, 2003, p. 311).
The majority of households currently have Internet access and those that do not are disproportionately characterized by low socioeconomic status. “In 1998, 74% of Canadian households in the highest-income group had computers, compared to only 18% of households in the lowest-income group” (Canadian Council on Social Development, 2001, p. 4). The majority of children and youth spend a significant amount of time online and those that do not are disproportionately characterized by low socioeconomic status (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003). Current anxiety surrounding children’s Internet use should be for those whose cognitive processes are not influenced by the cultural tool (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004).
Das, J. P. (2004). Theories of intelligence: Issues and applications. In G. Goldstein, S. R. Beers, & M. Herson (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment. Vol. 1. Intellectual and neuropsychological assessment (pp. 5- 23). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. Das, J. P., & Naglieri, J. A. (2001). The Das-Naglieri cognitive assessment system in theory and practice. In J. J. W. Andrews, D. H. Sakolfske, & H. L. Janzen (Eds.), Handbook of psychoeducational assessment: Ability, achievement, and behavior in children (pp. 34-64). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Dede, C., & Kremer, A. (1999). Increasing students’ participation via multiple interactive media. Inventio, 1. Retrieved June 13, 2005, from doit.gmu/Archives/feb98/dede_1.htm. Dennison, B. A., Erb, T. A., & Jenkins, P. L. (2002). Television viewing and television in bedroom associated with overweight risk among low-income preschool children. Pediatrics, 109 , 1028-1035. Desmond, R. (2001). Free reading: Implications for child development. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 29-46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Funk, J. B., & Buchman, D. D. (1996). Playing violent video and computer games and adolescent self-concept. Journal of Communication, 46 , 19-32. Gentile, D. A., & Walsh, D. A. (2002). A normative study of family media habits. Applied Developmental Psychology, 23 , 157- 178. Gerzog, E. H., & Haugland, S. W. (1999). Web sites provide unique learning opportunities for young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 27 , 109-114. Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Active video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423 , 534-537. Healy, J. M. (1998). Failure to connect: How computers affect our children’s minds – for better or for worse. New York: Simon and Schuster. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2004). Children, the digital divide, and federal policy. Retrieved June 15, 2005, from kff/entmedia/loader.cfm&PageID= Hines, R. A., & Pearl, C. E. (2004). Increasing interaction in web-based instruction: Using synchronous chats and asynchronous discussions. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 23 , 33-36. John-Steiner, V., & Mahn, H. (1996). Sociocultural approaches to learning and development: A Vygotskian framework. Educational Psychologist, 31 , 191-206. Johnson, M. H. (2004). Developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell. Klahr, D., & MacWhinney, B. (1998). Information processing. In D. Kuhn & R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (5th ed., pp. 631-678). New York: John Wiley. Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., et al. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393 , 266-268. Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. Luria, A. R. (1976). Cognitive development: Its cultural and social foundations. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Marsh, J., & Thompson, P. (2001). Parental involvement in literacy development: Using media texts. Journal of Research in Reading, 24 , 266-278. McChesney, R. W. (2004). The problem of the media: U. communications politics in the 21st century. New York: Monthly Review Press. McDermott, I. E. (2000). Youth stuck on web: The Internet for children. Searcher, 8 , 36-40. Naigles, L. R., & Mayeux, L. (2001). Television as incidental language teacher. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 135-152). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. National Center for Educational Statistics (2003). Computer and Internet use by children and adolescents in 2001: Statistical analysis report. Jessup, MD: U. S. Department of Education. Retrieved June 10, 2005, from nces.ed/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2004014. Parette, H. P., Hourcade, J. J., & Heiple, G. S. (2000). The importance of structured computer experiences for young children with and without disabilities. Early Childhood Education Journal, 27 , 243-250. Quigley, M., & Blashki, K. (2003). Beyond the boundaries of the sacred garden: Children and the Internet. Educational Technology Review, 11 , 70-77. Rideout, V. J., Vandewater, E. A., & Wartella, E. A. (2003). Zero to six: Electronic media in the lives of infants, toddlers and preschoolers. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Available at kaisernetwork/health_cast/uploaded_files/102803_kff_kids_report.pdf Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U. G., & Rideout, V. (2004). Generation M: Media in the lives of 8 – 18 year olds. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Available at kff/entmedia/loader.cfm&PageID= Rocheleau, B. (1995). Computer use by school-age children: Trends, patterns and predictors. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 1 , 1-17. Roe, K., & Muijs, D. (1998). Children and computer games: A profile of the heavy user. European Journal of Communication, 13 , 181-200. Satyen, L. (2003). Improving reaction time performance through video game training. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55 , 90. Siegler, R. S., & Alibali, M. W. (2004). Children’s thinking (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sims, V. K., & Mayer, R. E. (2002). Domain specificity of spatial expertise: The case of video game player. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16 , 97-115.
Solso, R. L., MacLin, M. K., & MacLin, O. H. (2005). Cognitive psychology (7th ed). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Statistics Canada. (2004, July). Household Internet use survey. Retrieved June 10, 2005, from statcan/Daily/English/040708/d040708a.htm. Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet (2001, April). E-rate and filtering: A review of the Children’s Internet Protection Act. Serial No. 107-33. Washington, DC: U. Government Printing Office. Subrahmanyam, K., Kraut, R., Greenfield, P., & Gross, E. (2000). The impact of home computer use on children’s activities and development. Future of Children, 10 , 123-144. Subrahmanyam, K., Kraut, R., Greenfield, P., & Gross, E. (2001). New forms of electronic media: The impact of interactive games and Internet on cognition, socialization, and behavior. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 73-99). Tarpley, T. (2001). Children, the Internet, and other new technologies. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 547-556). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Turow, J. (1999). The Internet and the family: The view from the parents, the view from the press. Philadelphia: Annenberg Public Policy Center, University of Pennsylvania. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wink, J., & Putney, L. (2002). A vision of Vygotsky. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2004). Online aggressor/targets, aggressors and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45 , 1308-1316.
ED493998 - I just need it.
Course: Civil Engineering (BSCE 01)
University: Ateneo de Davao University
- Discover more from:
