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DEV Psych Reviewer ( Prenatal- Chapter 9)
Psychology
Far Eastern University
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PRENATAL STAGE
(From Conception to Birth) ● Prenatal Development ○ refers to the series of events that occur from the time an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell until a newborn person is born. ● THREE STAGES ○ Period of Zygote (Weeks 1 - 2) ■ Period of Zygote happens in weeks 1- ■ 200 - 500 million sperm ■ An egg arrives monthly after it was released by an ovary. ■ This period ends when the zygote implants itself in the wall of the uterus. During these two weeks, the zygote grows rapidly through cell division. ■ IMPLANTATION ● The zygote burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with the woman’s blood vessels. ■ GERM DISC ● Small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that eventually develop into the baby. ■ PLACENTA ● Structure through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the mother and the developing child. ○ Period of the Embryo ( Weeks 3-8 ) ■ Embryo Term ● given to the zygote once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall. ■ Ectoderm ● outer ayer of the embryo, which becomes the hair, outer layer of skin, and nervous system. ■ Mesoderm ● middle layer of the embryo, which becomes the muscles, bones, and circulatory system. ■ Endoderm ● inner layer of the embryo, which becomes the lungs and digestive system. ■ Amnion ● inner sac in which the developing child rests. ■ AMNIONIC FLUID ● Fluid that surrounds the fetus. ■ UMBILICAL CORD ● Structure containing veins and arteries that connects the developing child to the placenta. ■ CEPHALOCAUDAL PRINCIPLE
● A principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the head develop first. ■ PROXIMODISTAL PRINCIPLE ● Principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the center of the body develop first. ○ Period of the Fetus (Weeks 9-38) ■ The final and the longest stage of the prenatal development ■ Begins at 9th weeks until 38th week ■ Gains its weight as it approaches to 9 months ● WEEK 9 (2 MONTHS) ○ Differentiation of ovaries and testes ○ Testes in the male fetus secrete hormone (penis and scrotum) ○ Female fetus is absent ; same cells creating vagina and labia ● WEEK 12 (3 MONTHS) ○ Circulatory system starts working ○ Heart beat is strong ● WEEK 16 (4 MONTHS) ○ Its movement can be felt by the mother ○ The fetus moves; stretches, yawns, swallow, and moves its limbs ○ Fetuses differ in their activity (DiPietro, Costigan, & Voegtline, 2015) ● WEEK 20- 24 (5-6 MONTHS) ○ Hair Forming ○ Eyebrows, Eyelashes and scalp hair emerged ○ Skin is covered with " vernix "- baby ' s protection during the long bath of amniotic acid ■ amniotic acid-protective liquid contained by the amniotic sac of a gravid amniote ● WEEK 24 (6 MONTHS) ○ Sucking and swallowing developed unique fingerprints ○ Focuses on the sound outside uterus ● WEEK 28 (7 MONTHS ALONG) ○ Develop reserves of body fat. ○ Hearing is fully developed ·Changed position frequently ○ Responds to smell ○ Begins to be experienced REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, which means that they are dreaming ● Age of viability( 22-28 weeks)
PRENATAL & NEWBORN STAGE
ISSUES AND COMPLICATIONS
❖ TERATOGENS: DRUGS
➢ NICOTINE
■ Keeps oxygen and nutrients from reaching the fetus through the placenta ■ More likely to miscarry ■ Bear smaller than average children ■ Includes secondhand smoke ■ At risk for Cleft Palate and Spina Bifida ➢ CAFFEINE ■ Increase the risk of miscarriage or low birthweight ■ Decreased growth of the fetus ➢ NEONATAL ABSTINENCE SYNDROME ■ Infants who are born "addicted" to drugs ■ Experience the symptoms of withdrawal shortly after birth ➢ FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD) ■ Disorder affecting babies whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while they were pregnant. ■ Grow more slowly than normal, have heart problems, and misshapen faces. ■ Have serious attentional, cognitive, and behavioral problems (Davis et al., 2013). ❖ TERATOGENS: DISEASES ➢ CONGENITAL GENITAL HERPES ■ Encephalitis, enlarged spleen, improper blood clotting ➢ CONGENITAL CHLAMYDIA ■ Premature birth, low birth weight, eye inflammation ➢ HIV / AIDS ■ Frequent infections, neurological disorders, death ➢ SYPHILIS ■ Damage to the central nervous system, teeth, and bones ➢ CHICKEN POX ■ Spontaneous abortion, developmental delays, mental retardation ➢ CYTOMEGALOVIRUS ■ Deafness, blindness, abnormally small head, mental retardation ➢ RUBELLA ■ Mental retardation; damage to eyes, ears, and heart ➢ TOXOPLASMOSIS ■ Damage to the eyes and brain; learning disabilities ➢ GESTATIONAL DIABETES ❖ TERATOGENS: ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
➢ As a by-product of life in an industrialized world, people are often exposed to toxins in food they eat, fluids they drink, and air they breathe. Chemicals associated with industrial waste are the most common form of environmental teratogens ■ AIR POLLUTION ● Low birth weight, premature birth, lower test scores ■ LEAD ● Mental retardation ■ MERCURY ● Retarded growth, mental retardation, cerebral palsy ■ ARSENIC ❖ GENERAL RISK FACTORS: NUTRITION ➢ NUTRITION ■ ”Mother” is the developing child’s sole source of nutrition. ➢ KEY NUTRIENTS ■ Folic Acid is essential for the spinal cord to develop properly. ■ IroN is necessary to make additional hemoglobin - which carries oxygen to the body’s cell. ■ Calcium is required to develop strong teeth and bones as well as a healthy heart, muscles, and nerves. ❖ GENERAL RISK FACTORS: STRESS ➢ STRESS ■ A person’s physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging situations. ➢ BEHAVIORS THAT ENDANGER PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ■ When a pregnant woman experiences stress, her body secretes hormones ■ Stress can weaken a pregnant woman’s immune system ■ Pregnant women under stress are more likely to smoke or drink alcohol and less likely to rest, exercise, and eat properly ■ Stress may produce epigenetic changes ❖ GENERAL RISK FACTORS: MOTHER'S AGE ➢ MOTHER'S AGE ■ Traditionally, the 20s were thought to be the prime childbearing years while teenagers and women who were 30 and older were considered less fit for the rigors of pregnancy ❖ PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS TREATMENT ➢ GENETIC COUNSELING ■ Check family history of inheritable disease ➢ PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS ■ Ultrasound ● in which sound waves are used to generate a picture of the fetus. ■ Amniocentesis
■ Babies born before the 36th week after conception. ➢ Newborns who weigh 2, 500 grams or 5 pounds or less are said to have low birth weight. ➢ Newborns weighing less than 1, 500 grams or 3 pounds are said to have very low birth weight. ➢ Newborns weighing less than 1, 000 grams or 2 are said to have extremely low birth weight. ❖ NEWBORN SCREENING ➢ refers to a set of special tests, including blood, hearing, and heart screening, done to one- to two-day-old infants, usually before they leave the hospital. INFANCY ➔ THE NEWBORN'S REFLEXES ◆ Reflexes - unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation. ➔ ASSESSING THE NEWBORN ◆ Autonomic: the baby’s ability to control body functions such as breathing and temperature regulation ◆ Motor: the baby’s ability to control body movements and activity level ◆ State: the baby’s ability to maintain a state (e., staying alert or staying asleep) ◆ Social: the baby’s ability to interact with people The Newborn’s States ◆ Alert inactivity: The baby is calm with eyes open and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment. ◆ Waking activity: The baby’s eyes are open, but they seem unfocused; the arms or legs move in bursts of uncoordinated motion. ◆ Crying: The baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated motion. ◆ Sleeping: The baby alternates between being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly; eyes are closed throughout ➔ SLEEPING ◆ The baby alternates between being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly; eyes are closed throughout ◆ Irregular or rapid-eye-movement (rEM) sleep: irregular sleep in which an infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active. ◆ Regular or nonrEM sleep: sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady. ◆ Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): when a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason ➔ CRYING
◆ Basic cry: cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired. ◆ Mad cry: more intense version of a basic cry. ◆ Pain cry: cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping ➔ TEMPERAMENT ◆ Consistent style or pattern of behavior ◆ Surgency/extroversion refers to the extent to which a child is generally happy, active, and vocal and regularly seeks interesting stimulation. ◆ Negative affect refers to the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed. ◆ Effortful control refers to the extent to which a child can focus attention, is not readily distracted, and can inhibit responses. ➔ HEREDITARY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO TEMPERAMENT ◆ The influence of heredity is shown in twin studies and adoption studies ◆ The environment contributes to children's temperament. ➔ STABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT ◆ It shapes the development in important ways. An infant's temperament may determine the experiences that parents provide. INFANCY (PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT) ➔ GROWTH OF THE BODY ◆ Whether an infant is short or tall depends largely on heredity. Infants are not simply scaled down versions of adults. ➔ NUTRITION AND GROWTH ◆ In a typical 2-month-old, roughly 40% of the body’s energy is devoted to growth ◆ Breastfeeding is the best way to ensure that babies get the nourishment they need. Experts recommend that children be breastfed until they are 2 years old. ◆ By 2 years, growth slows; so children need less to eat. This is also a time when many children become picky eaters, ➔ MALNUTRITION ◆ Worldwide, about one in four children under age 5 is malnourished, as indicated by being small for their age. ◆ Malnourishment is especially damaging during infancy because growth is rapid during these years. ◆ Simple cure—an adequate diet. ◆ To counter the effects of malnutrition, children need more than an improved diet. Parents must be taught how to foster their children’s development and must be encouraged to do so. ➔ THE EMERGING NERVOUS SYSTEM
● The immature brain’s lack of specialization confers a benefit—greater plasticity. ➔ MOVING AND GRASPING ◆ Motor Skills - Coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs ◆ Locomote - To move around in the world ◆ Fine Motor Skills - Motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects. ➔ Dynamic Systems Theory ◆ A theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs. ➔ LOCOMOTION ◆ Posture - The ability to maintain an upright posture is fundamental to walking. ◆ Balance - Infants do not master this just once since they must relearn it for other activities (sitting, crawling , and walking). ◆ Stepping - Another essential element of walking is moving the legs alternately, repeatedly transferring the weight of the body from one foot to the other. ◆ Environmental Cues - Infants use cues in the environment to judge whether a surface is suitable for walking. ◆ Coordinating Skills: ● Differentiation - Distinguishing and mastering individual motions. ● Integration - Linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole ◆ Beyond Walking - The first tentative steps soon are followed by others that are more skilled. With more experience, infants take longer, straighter steps. ➔ FINE MOTOR SKILLS ◆ Reaching - Around their 4th month, infants can reach for objects, but it is not smooth and it is usually in a zigzag path. ◆ Grasping - A different challenge compared to reaching: infants must coordinate movements of each finger to grab an object. Infants are skilled at grasping when they are in the 12th month. ◆ Handedness - Before birth, most children are emergent right handers. ● > Left hand - steady the toy ● > Right hand - manipulates the object ➔ COMING TO KNOW THE WORLD ◆ PERCEPTION ● Processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation. “First step” ◆ SMELL, TASTE, AND TOUCH
● Smell: Newborns have a keen sense of smell. Infants respond positively to pleasant smells and negatively to unpleasant smells. ● Taste: Newborns also have a highly developed sense of taste. They readily differentiate salty, sour, bitter, and sweet tastes ● Touch: Newborns are sensitive to touch. Newborns can feel pain. ◆ HEARING ● Infants can distinguish speech sounds, such as vowels from consonant sounds, and by 4 or 5 months, they can recognize their own names. ● Newborns respond to sound. ◆ SEEING ● Newborns respond to light and can track moving objects with their eyes. ● Visual Acuity - "clarity of vision". Defined as the smallest pattern that can be distinguished dependably. ◆ DEPTH PERCEPTION ● Tells us whether objects are near or far, which was the basis for some classic research by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) ● Despite their mother’s coaxing, infants avoid the “deep side” of the visual cliff, indicating that they perceive depth. ◆ PERCEIVING OBJECTS ● Color: Newborns and young babies can perceive few colors but by 3 months, the three kinds of cones and their associated circuits are working and infants are able to see the full range of colors. ● Cones - specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color. ○ Short-wavelength light (blues and violets). ○ Medium-wavelength light (greens and yellows), ○ Long wavelength light (reds and oranges). ➔ INTEGRATING SENSORY INFORMATION ◆ Intersensory redundancy - Infants’ sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes. ◆ According to intersensory redundancy theory, it’s as if infants follow the rule “Any information that’s presented in multiple senses must be important, so pay attention to it!” ➔ ORIGINS OF SELF-CONCEPT ◆ self-awareness emerges by 18- 24 months ◆ Self-awareness is established with personal pronouns (I or me) at the age of 2
➔ INFORMATION PROCESSING
➔ Attention ◆ A process that determines which sensory information received additional cognitive processing ➔ Orienting Response ◆ An individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur ➔ Habituation ◆ Act of becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly. ➔ Classical Conditioning ◆ In which a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus. ➔ Operant Conditioning ◆ Form of learning that emphasizes the consequences of reward and punishment. ➔ IMITATION ➔ Memory ◆ Three important features of memory exist by 2 and 3 months of age: ● An event from the past is remembered ● Over time, the event cannot be recalled ● A cue can serve to retrieve a memory that seems to have been forgotten ➔ Autobiographical Memory ◆ Refers to people’s memory of the significant events and experiences of their own lives. ➔ Learning Number Skills ➔ MIND AND CULTURE: VYGOTSKY'S THEORY ➔ LEV VYGOTSKY ◆ He proposed that children develop when they collaborate with others who are more skilled. ● Intersubjectivity - mutual shared understanding among participants in an activity. ● Guided participation - children's involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled, typically producing cognitive growth. ● The Zone of Proximal Development - The difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone. ● Scaffolding - A style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner's needs. ● Private Speech - A child's comments that are not intended for others but are designed to help regulate the child's own behavior.
➔ THE ROAD TO SPEECH
◆ The first form of communication used by infants is crying, which is soon followed by other language-based ways of communicating. ➔ STEPS TO SPEECH ◆ Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce. ● At 2 months, infants begin to produce vowel like sounds such as “ooooooo” and “ahhhhhh,” ◆ Babbling speechlike sounds that consist of vowel– consonant combinations; common at about 6 months. ● “dah” or “bah, ” ● Older infants: “bahbahbah, ” ● And begin to combine different sounds, such as “dahmahbah” ➔ IDENTIFYING WORDS ◆ By 6 months, infants pay more attention to content words (e., nouns, verbs) than to function words (e., articles, prepositions) ◆ 7- to 8-month-olds hear a word repeatedly in different sentences they later pay more attention to this word than to words they haven’t heard previously ➔ INFANT-DIRECTED SPEECH ◆ Speech that adults use with infants that is slow and has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume; it helps children master language ➔ FIRST WORDS AND MANY MORE ◆ Infants must recognize that words are symbols—entities that stand for other entities. ◆ Gestures are symbols, and infants begin to gesture shortly before their first birthday ● In one study, youngsters first referred to nearly 50% of objects by gesture and, about three months later, by word. ➔ SPEAKING IN SENTENCES ➔ Telegraphic Speech ◆ used by young children that contains only the words necessary to convey a message ➔ Grammatical morphemes ◆ words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical. (such as -ing, -ed, and -s) ➔ Overregularization ◆ grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule. ➔ COMMUNICATING WITH OTHERS ◆ For effective oral communication children need to follow a few simple guidelines: ● People should take turns, alternating as speaker and listener. ● A speaker’s remarks should be clear from the listener’s perspective.
➔ Social Role ◆ Set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people ➔ Gender Stereotype ◆ Beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true ➔ Gender Related Differences ◆ Verbal ability ◆ Mathematics ◆ Spatial Ability ◆ Memory ◆ Social Influence ◆ Aggression ◆ Emotional sensitivity and expression ◆ Effortful control ➔ Gender Identity ◆ Sense of oneself as male or female ➔ Gender-Schema Theory ◆ Theory that states that children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine. SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENT OFF TO SCHOOL: COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ❖ More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget's Version ❖ The Concrete-Operational Period (7-11 years old) ➢ limited to the tangible and real, to the here and now. ➢ takes “an earthbound, concrete, practical-minded sort of problem-solving approach” ➢ have acquired mental operations, but thinking abstractly and hypothetically is beyond the ability. ❖ The Formal-Operational Period (11-Adulthood) ➢ apply psychological operations to abstract entities, too; they are able to think hypothetically and reason abstractly. ➢ deductive reasoning, drawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal-operational thought. ❖ Information-Processing Strategies for Learning and Remembering ➢ working memory, type of memory in which a small number of items can be stored briefly. ➢ long-term memory, permanent storehouse for memories that has unlimited capacity.
❖ Memory Strategies ➢ Organization, as applied to children’s memory, a strategy in which information to be remembered is structured so that related information is placed together. ➢ Elaboration, information is embellished to make it more memorable. ❖ Metacognition ➢ Greek word: "meta"= beyond; "cognoscere"=getting to know. ➢ Ability of students to be aware of one's thinking and choose a helpful thought process. ❖ Metamemory ➢ person’s informal understanding of memory; including the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies. ❖ Metacognitive Knowledge ➢ a person’s knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes. ❖ Cognitive Self-regulation ➢ skill at identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and monitoring accurately; a characteristic of successful students. APTITUDE'S FOR SCHOOL ❖ Theories of Intelligence ➢ Psychometricians are psychologists who specialize in measuring psychological characteristics such as intelligence and personality. ❖ The Hierarchical View of Intelligence ➢ Hierarchical models of intelligence are valuable because they integrate findings from decades’ of research. Nevertheless, some critics find them unsatisfactory because they ignore research and theory on cognitive development. ❖ Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences ➢ The first three intelligences in the list—linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, and spatial intelligence—are included in traditional theories of intelligence. The last six intelligences are not: Musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential intelligences are unique to Gardner’s theory ➢ emotional intelligence, ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily. ❖ Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence ➢ Intelligence is defined as using one’s abilities skillfully to achieve one’s personal goals (Sternberg, 2015). ❖ Three Kinds of Abilities ➢ Analytic ability involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions. ➢ Creative ability, dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems. ➢ Practical Ability, knowing what solution or plan will actually work.
■ Developmental dyslexia / reading disability. ■ Children with impaired reading comprehension ■ Mathematical disability ❖ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ➢ Symptoms ■ Hyperactivity ■ Inattention ■ Implusivity ➢ Treatment ■ Stimulants drugs (Ritalin) ■ Behavioral treatment ACADEMIC SKILLS ❖ Reading ❖ Two important processes: ➢ Word Recognition – a process of identifying a unique pattern of letters ➢ Comprehension – a process of extracting the meaning from a sequence of words ❖ Writing ➢ Skills contributing to Improved Writing: ■ Knowledge About Topics ■ Organizing Writing ■ The Mechanical Requirements of Writing ■ Skill in Revising ❖ Mathematical Skills SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS ❖ The Family as a System ➢ Only human beings and a handful of other species form family-like units. ➢ In the system's view, parents influence their children both directly and indirectly while children influence their parents. ➢ The systems view reveals other, more subtle influences ❖ Parenting and Styles ➢ Authoritarian parenting - combines high control with little warmth. ➢ Authoritative parenting - combines a fair degree of parental control with being warm and responsive to children. ➢ Permissive parenting - offers warmth and caring but little parental control ➢ Uninvolved parenting - provides neither warmth nor control ❖ Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status ➢ Parental styles vary not only across cultures but also within cultures, depending on parents ’ socioeconomic status.
➢ Parents of higher socioeconomic status are, by definition, more educated and consequently often see development as a more complex process requiring the more nuanced and child-friendly approach that marks authoritative parenting. ❖ Genetic Influences on Parenting ➢ Families and parenting are adaptations that evolved to provide for children until they mature. ➢ In other words, genes are linked to behaviors that make for effective parenting. ❖ Parental Behavior ➢ Direct Instruction and Coaching A better approach is direct instruction, which involves telling a child what to do, when, and why ➢ Modeling, the parents ’ modeling and the youngsters ’observational learning leads to imitation, so children’s behavior resembles the behavior they observe. ➢ Feedback, by giving feedback to their children, parents indicate whether a behavior is appropriate and should continue or is inappropriate and should stop. ■ Reinforcement is any action that increases the likelihood of the response that it follows ■ Punishment is any action that discourages the recurrence of the response that it follows. ❖ Influences of the Marital System ❖ Parental conflict affects children ’ s development through three distinct mechanisms. ➢ First, seeing parents fight jeopardizes a child’ s feeling that the family is stable and secure ➢ Chronic conflict between parents often spills over into the parent–child relationship. ➢ When parents invest time and energy fighting with each other, they ’ re often too tired or too preoccupied to invest themselves in high-quality parenting ❖ Children’s Contributions: Reciprocal Influence ❖ Siblings ➢ Sibling relationships are complicated from the beginning. ➢ Many older siblings enjoy helping their parents take care of newborns ➢ Older siblings also serve as teachers for their younger siblings, ❖ Adopted Children ➢ Adopted children often experience adversity before being adopted. ➢ In recent years, adopted children (and their adoptive families) are more likely to communicate with the children ’ s birth family, an arrangement known as an open adoption ❖ Impact of Birth Order
DEV Psych Reviewer ( Prenatal- Chapter 9)
Course: Psychology
University: Far Eastern University
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