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Comer (causal factors, models and approach)
Abnormal Psychology (PSY 9)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Valenzuela
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Abnormal psychologyPreview text
COMER & COMER
Causal Factors, Models and Approaches
Model A set of assumptions and concepts that help scientists explain and interpret observations. Also called a paradigm.
The Models: Biological Model which sees a physical process as key to human behavior. Psychodynamic Model focuses on people’s unconscious internal processes and conflicts. Cognitive-behavioral model emphasizes behavior, the ways in which it is learned, and the thinking that underlies behavior Humanistic-existential model stresses the role of values and choices. Sociocultural model looks to social and cultural forces as the keys to human functioning. Family-social perspective which focuses on an individual’s family and social interactions Multicultural perspective which emphasizes an individual’s culture and the shared beliefs, values, and history of that culture.
BIOLOGICAL MODEL
biological theorists view abnormal behavior as an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism Neuron A nerve cell. Synapse The tiny space between the nerve ending of one neuron and the dendrite of another. Neurotransmitter A chemical that, released by one neuron, crosses the synaptic space to be received at receptors on the dendrites of neighboring neurons. (serotonin, epinephrine, glutamate, etc.) Receptor A site on a neuron that receives a neurotransmitter.
Brain Chemistry and Abnormal Behavior Process Neurons (nerve cell) and support cells called glia (sending electrical impulse; neuron to neuron) Received by Neuron’s dendrites (at the end of neuron) Neuron’s axon Transmitted through the nerve ending at the end of the axon to the dendrites of other neurons
Abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters is sometimes tied to mental disorders. Mental disorders are sometimes related to abnormal chemical activity in the body’s endocrine system like imbalance hormones.
Hormones The chemicals released by endocrine glands into the bloodstream.
Brain Anatomy, Circuitry and Abnormal Behavior Particular psychological disorders sometimes linked to problems in specific structures of the brain. Ex: Huntington’s disease- a disorder marked by involuntary body movements, violent emotional outbursts, memory loss, suicidal thinking, and absurd beliefs — has been linked in part to a loss of neurons in two brain structures, the basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex.
Brain Circuit- is a network of particular brain structures that work together, triggering each other into action to produce a distinct behavioral, cognitive, or emotional reaction. key to psychological disorders rather than on dysfunction within a single brain structure or by a single brain chemical.
Proper interconnectivity (communication) among the structures of a circuit tends to result in healthy psychological functioning, whereas flawed interconnectivity may lead to abnormal functioning.
Sources of Biological Abnormalities Genetics and Abnormal Behavior 23 pairs of chromosome with each chromosome (contains genes) in a pair inherited from one of the person’s parents. Several or more genes combine to help produce our actions and reactions, both functional and dysfunctional. Gene combinations can contribute to one’s mental disorder.
Genes Chromosome segments that control the characteristics and traits we inherit.
Evolution and Abnormal Behavior Human reactions and the genes responsible for them have survived over the course of time because they have helped individuals to thrive and adapt.
The very genes that helped their ancestors to survive and reproduce might now leave these individuals particularly prone to fear reactions, anxiety disorders, or related psychological patterns.
Evolutionary perspective is controversial in the clinical field
Mutation An abnormal form of the appropriate gene that emerges by accident.
Biological Treatments When behaving abnormally biological practitioners look for: family history, possible genetic predisposition & event that could have physiological effect.
After looking for pinpointed physical sources of dysfunction, they will choose a biological course of treatment.
3 leading biological treatment: Drug therapy (most common) Brain stimulation Psychosurgery Psychotropic medication- drugs that mainly affect emotions and thought processes. Used widely, either alone or with other forms of therapy. Cons: overused, do not help everyone
Major Psychotropic drug groups: Antianxiety drugs- also called minor tranquilizers/ anxiolytics, help reduce tension and anxiety.
Antidepressant drugs- help improve the functioning of people with depression and certain other disorders.
Antibipolar drugs- also called mood stabilizers, help steady the moods of those with a bipolar disorder, a condition marked by mood swings from mania to depression.
Antipsychotic drugs help reduce the confusion, hallucinations, and delusions that often accompany psychosis, a loss of contact with reality found in schizophrenia and other disorders.
Brain Stimulation Interventions that directly or indirectly stimulate certain areas of the brain. Well known and primarily on severely depressed people, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
Two electrodes are attached to a patient’s forehead, and an electrical current of 65 to 140 volts is passed briefly through the brain. The current causes a brain seizure that lasts up to a few minutes. After seven to nine ECT sessions, spaced two or three days apart, many patients feel considerably less depressed.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), an electromagnetic coil is placed on or above a person’s head, sending a current into certain areas of the brain.
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), a pulse generator is implanted in a person’s neck, helping to stimulate their vagus nerve, a long nerve that extends from the brain down through the neck and on to the abdomen. The stimulated vagus nerve then delivers electrical signals to the brain.
Each of these newer brain stimulation techniques is able to improve the psychological functioning of many people whose depressive or related disorders have been unresponsive to other forms of treatment.
Psychosurgery- brain surgery for mental disorders. Roots from trephining. Modern procedures are derived from a notorious
technique developed in the late 1930s by a Portuguese neuropsychiatrist, Ant漃Ānio Egas Moniz known as lobotomy a surgeon would cut the connections between the brain’s frontal lobes and the lower regions of the brain.
Deep brain stimulation- electrodes are implanted in specific areas of a person’s brain and connected to a battery (“pacemaker”) in the chest.
The pacemaker proceeds to power the electrodes, sending a steady stream of low- voltage electricity to the targeted brain areas. This procedure, actually a combination of psychosurgical and brain stimulation techniques, has proved quite helpful for many individuals with severe, hard-to-treat depression
Assessing Biological Model Pros: produce valuable new information and biological treatments Cons: Not all human behavior can be explained and treated biologically; Treatment are capable of producing significant undesirable effects
PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL Person’s behavior, whether normal or abnormal, is determined largely by underlying psychological forces of which the individual is not consciously aware. Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces. Psychological conflicts are tied to early relationships and to traumatic experiences that occurred during childhood.
Dynamic- internal forces; interact with one another gives rise to behavior, thoughts, and emotions.
Deterministic- assumption that no symptom or behavior is “accidental”: all behavior is determined by past experiences.
How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning? Id (instinctual needs), Ego (rational thinking/ reality principle), and Superego (moral standards) is the central force that shape the personality.
Id- instinctual needs, drives and impulses; pleasure principle; instinct tend to be sexual noting from earliest stage of life. Person’s libido or sexual energy fuels the id.
Ego- reality principle; employing reason, guides us to know when we can and cannot express those impulses. Ego defense mechanism- to control unacceptable id impulses and avoid or reduce the anxiety they arouse.
Superego- morality principle; conscience is here
Developmental Stages He proposed that in every stage require adjustment in their id, ego and superego. If it didn’t happen the term fixated will happen or basically when development become stuck.
Exposure therapy- a behavior-focused intervention in which fearful people are repeatedly exposed to the objects or situations they dread
New Wave Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies Acceptance and commitment therapy- help clients to accept many of their problematic thoughts rather than judge them, act on them, or try fruitlessly to change them. The hope is that by recognizing such thoughts for what they are—just thoughts— clients will eventually be able to let them pass through their awareness without being particularly troubled by them.
Mindfulness-based technique to help clients achieve such acceptance. Borrowed from mindfulness meditation, which teaches individuals to pay attention to the thoughts and feelings that are flowing through their minds during meditation and to accept such thoughts in a nonjudgmental way.
Assessing the Cognitive-Behavioral Model
Pros: many treatment techniques have been developed; can be tested in laboratory; impressive research performance; helpful to many people with disorders and other problems.
Cons: The problematic behaviors and cognitions seen in psychologically troubled people could well be a result rather than a cause of their difficulties; do not help everyone; paying too little attention to the influence of early life experiences and relationship on client’s difficulties; narrow in certain ways.
HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL MODEL
Humanists believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative and constructive.
Self-actualize- to fulfill their potential for goodness and growth only if they honestly recognize and accept their weaknesses as well as their strengths and establish satisfying personal values to live by. Leads naturally to a concern for the welfare of others and to behavior that is loving, courageous, spontaneous, and independent.
Existentialist agree that human beings must have an accurate awareness of themselves and live meaningful (“authentic”) lives in order to be psychologically well-adjusted. They believe that from birth we have total freedom, either to face up to our existence and give meaning to our lives or to shrink from that responsibility. Those who choose to “hide” from responsibility and choice will view themselves as helpless and may live empty, inauthentic, and dysfunctional lives as a result.
Carl Rogers Client-centered therapy- The therapist must display three important qualities throughout the therapy— unconditional positive regard (full and warm acceptance for the client), accurate empathy (skillful listening and restating), and genuineness (sincere communication).
They then may be able to look at themselves with
honesty and acceptance. They begin to value their own emotions, thoughts, and behaviors, and so they are freed from the insecurities and doubts that prevent self- actualization.
Theory of personality that paid a little attention to irrational instincts and conflicts.
Humanistic Theory and Therapy Road to dysfunction begins in infancy. Need a positive regard from important people in our lives (primarily our parents). People who receive unconditional (nonjudgmental) positive regard early in life are likely to develop unconditional self-regard. That is, they come to recognize their worth as persons, even while recognizing that they are not perfect. Such people are in a good position to actualize their positive potential. conditions of worth standards that tell them they are lovable and acceptable only when they conform to certain guidelines.
Gestalt Theory and Therapy Gestalt Therapy The humanistic therapy developed by Fritz Perls in which clinicians actively move clients toward self- recognition and self-acceptance by using techniques such as role playing and self-discovery exercises.
Guide their clients toward self-recognition and self- acceptance Unlike client-centered therapy, they try to achieve this goal by challenging and even frustrating the clients, demanding that they stay in the here and now during therapy discussions, and pushing them to embrace their real emotions. Ex: Role playing
Spiritual Views and Interventions And in the early 1900s, Freud argued that religious beliefs were defense mechanisms “born from man’s need to make his helplessness tolerable” but the negative view of religion now seems to be ending. Researchers have learned that spirituality does, in fact, often correlate with psychological health. In particular, studies have examined the mental health of people who are devout and who view God as warm, caring, helpful, and dependable. Repeatedly, these individuals are found to be less lonely, pessimistic, depressed, or anxious than people without any religious beliefs or those who view God as cold and unresponsive
Do such correlations indicate that spirituality helps produce greater mental health? Not necessarily, correlations do not indicate causation. For example, that a sense of optimism leads to more spirituality, and that, in dependently, optimism contributes to greater mental health.
Existential Theories and Therapy Also believed that psychological dysfunction is caused by self-deception (which people hide from life’s responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives)
According to existentialist, people look to others for explanations, guidance, and authority. They overlook their personal freedom of choice and avoid responsibility for their lives and decisions which left them with empty, inauthentic lives. Their dominant emotions are anxiety, frustration, boredom, alienation, and depression.
Encourage to accept responsibility for their loves and for their problems.
Most existential therapists place great emphasis on the relationship between therapist and client and try to create an atmosphere of honesty, hard work, and shared learning and growth.
Do not believe that experimental methods can adequately test the effectiveness of their treatments.
Assessing the Humanistic-Existential Model Pros: Optimistic tone; Emphasis on health; sees clients as people who have yet to fulfill their potential
Cons: Focus on abstract issues of human fulfillment; difficult to research
Sociocultural Model: Family-Social and Multicultural Perspectives Abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the broad forces that influence an individual. Like norms in the society and culture; role in the environment; family structure or cultural background; people’s view and way of reaction.
Family-Social Perspective How do Family-Social Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning? Focus on family relationship, social interactions and community events. It is believed that such forces help account for both normal and abnormal behavior, and they pay particular attention to three kinds of factors: social labels and roles, social networks, and family structure and communication.
Social Labels and Roles When people stray from the norm they labeled as “mentally ill”. Such labels tend to stick. when people are viewed in particular ways reacted as crazy and perhaps even encourage to act sick they gradually learn to accept and play the assigned social role.
Power of negative labels
On Being Sane in Insane Places” by clinical investigator David Rosenhan (1973) Eight normal people, actually colleagues of Rosenhan, presented themselves at various mental hospitals, falsely complaining that they had been hearing voices say the words “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” According to the study, on the basis of this com- plaint alone, each was diagnosed as having schizophrenia and admitted. Once hospitalized, the pseudopatients had a hard time convincing others that they were well, even though they behaved normally and stopped reporting symptoms as soon as they were admitted. The label “schizophrenia” kept influencing the way the staff viewed and dealt with them; for example, one pseudopatient who paced the corridor out of boredom was, in clinical notes, described as “nervous.”
Social Connections and Supports Concerned with the social environments in which people operate, including their social and professional relationships.
Ties between deficient social connections and psychological dysfunction. People who are unable to communicate and develop relationships in their everyday lives will find adequate social contacts online. Although this may be true for some such individuals, research suggests that people’s
- The therapist’s awareness of the stress, prejudices, and stereotypes to which minority clients are exposed
- The therapist’s awareness of the hardships faced by the children of immigrants
- Helping clients recognize the impact of both their own culture and the dominant culture on their self-views and behaviors
- Helping clients identify and express suppressed anger and pain
- Helping clients achieve a bicultural balance that feels right for them
- Helping clients raise their self-esteem — a sense of self-worth that has often been damaged by generations of negative messages
Integrating the Models: The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective Each helps us appreciate a key aspect of human functioning, and each has important strengths as well as serious limitations. Biopsychosocial theories- integrative explanations that state abnormality results from the interaction of genetic, biological, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, cultural, and societal influences. Developmental psychopathology- this perspective uses a developmental framework to understand how variables and principles from the various models may collectively account for human functioning—both adaptive and maladaptive functioning. the perspective pays particular attention to the timing of influential variables. Critical question for developmental psychopathologists is not which single factor is the cause of an individual’s current psychological problems, but rather when, how, in what context, and to what degree the multiple factors in their life interact with one another.
Equifinality a number of different developmental routes can lead to the same psychological disorder.
Multifinality persons who have experienced a number of similar developmental variables (for example, comparable biological predispositions, family structures, schools, and
neighborhoods) may nevertheless have different clinical outcomes.
Comer (causal factors, models and approach)
Course: Abnormal Psychology (PSY 9)
University: Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Valenzuela
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