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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY angelica garcia THIS REVIEWER IS NOT FOR SALE. BIODIVERSITY Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach What role do humans play in the extinction of species? 1. Extinctions are natural but sometimes they increase sharply Biological extinction occurs when a species can no longer be found anywhere on the earth. The disappearance of species can weaken or break some of the connections in the ecosystem. The extinction of many species in a relatively short period of geologic time is called a mass extinction. 2. Some human activities are causing extinction rates to rise Extinction is a natural process, but evidence indicates that extinction has accelerated as the human population has increased, consuming huge quantities of resources and creating large and growing ecological footprints. Scientists from around the world have estimated that the current annual rate of species extinction is at least 100 to times the background rate. The annual extinction rate is projected to rise to about per year, mostly because of habitat loss and degradation, climate change, and other environmentally harmful effects of human activities. At a extinction rate, of the current species could vanish the end of this century. A projected extinction rate of a year may be on the low side, for several reasons. The rate of species loss and the extent of biodiversity losses are likely to increase sharply during the next years due to projected growth of the human population. Current and projected extinction rates are much higher than the global average in parts of the world that are already highly endangered centers of biodiversity. Humans are creating a speciation crisis eliminating or degrading many biologically diverse environments that are potential sites for the emergence of new species. Human activities might help to increase the speciation rates for other rapidly reproducing opportunist species such as weeds, rodents, insects, which could further accelerate the extinction of other species. 3. SCIENCE FOCUS: Estimating extinction rates. Difficulties in estimating extinction rates include: a. Because the extinction of a species typically takes a very long time, it is not easy to document. b. We have identified of only about 2 million of the estimated 8 million to 100 million species. c. Scientists know little about the nature and ecological roles of most of the species that have been identified. Methods include: a. Studying records that document the rates at which mammals and birds have become extinct since humans began their rapidly increasing domination of the planet about years ago, and comparing this information with fossil records of extinctions that occurred before the development of agriculture. b. Observing how decreases in habitat size affect extinction rates. The relationship suggests that, on average, a loss of land habitat in a given area can cause the extinction of about of the species living in that area. c. Using mathematical population viability analysis (PVA) models to estimate the risk of a particular species becoming endangered or extinct within a certain period of time. 4. Endangered and threatened species are ecological smoke alarms An endangered species has so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range. A threatened species (vulnerable species) still has enough remaining individuals to survive in the short term, but because of declining numbers, it is likely to become endangered in the near future. Some species have characteristics that make them especially vulnerable to ecological and biological extinction. Characteristics that can put certain species in greater danger of extinction 1. Low reproductive rate blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros 2. Specialized niche blue whale, giant panda, everglades kite 3. Narrow distribution elephant seal, desert pupfish 4. Feeds at high tropic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear 5. Fixed migratory patterns blue whale. Whooping crane, sea turtle 6. Rare African violet, some orhids 7. Commercially valuable snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds 8. Large territories California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Percentages of various species threatened with extinction due to human activities Why should we care about the rising rate of species extinction? 1. Species are a vital part of the natural capital Three major reasons why we should work to prevent our activities from causing the extinction of other species: a. The species provide natural resources and natural services that help to keep us alive and support human economies. Various plant species provide food crops, fuelwood and lumber, paper, and medicine. Preserving species also provides economic benefits through b. Analysis of past mass extinctions indicates that it will take million years for natural speciation to rebuild the biodiversity that we are likely to destroy during your lifetime. c. Many people believe that each wild species has a right to exist, regardless its usefulness to us. How do humans accelerate species extinction? 1. Loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to species: Remember HIPPCO HIPPCO summarizes the most important causes of extinction from human activities: Habitat Invasive (nonnative) species. Population use of resources. Pollution. Climate change. Overexploitation. Scientists say that the greatest threat to wild species is habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. The greatest eliminators of species are, in order: Deforestation in tropical areas. Destruction and degradation of coral reefs and wetlands. Replacement of biologically diverse grasslands with monoculture crops. Pollution of streams, lakes, and oceans. Island species, often endemic species found nowhere else on earth, are especially vulnerable to extinction. Habitat roads, logging, agriculture, and urban when a large, intact area of habitat is reduced in area and divided into smaller, more scattered and isolated patches, or Most national parks and other nature preserves are habitat islands. 2. We have introduced species that can disrupt ecosystems After habitat loss and degradation, the biggest cause of animal and plant extinctions is the deliberate or accidental introduction of harmful invasive species into ecosystems. Most species introductions are beneficial to us, such as food crops, livestock and harvestable trees. Problems arise when introduced species have no natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogens to help control their numbers in their new habitat. An estimated 7,100 species introduced into the US have caused ecological and economic harm. CASE STUDY: The Kudzu Vine. A deliberately introduced plant grows rampant in the southeastern US and is known as vine that ate the In the 1930s, this vine was imported from Japan and planted in the southeastern US in an attempt to control soil erosion. 3. Some accidentally introduced species can disrupt ecosystems Many unwanted nonnative invaders arrive from other continents as stowaways on aircrafts, ships, wooden packing crates, on cars, or with tourists. Terrestrial examples include: The aggressive Argentina fire ant which has spread over much of the southern US. Fire ants can wipe out native ant populations. Fire ant mounds can cover fields and yards. When disturbed, up to ants may attack with painful, burning stings. They have killed deer fawns, birds, livestock, pets, and at least 80 people who were allergic to their venom. Pythons and boa constrictors have ended up in the Everglades in Florida after being dumped their owners. Some reach 20 feet long and 200 pounds. They are hard to find and kill, and they reproduce rapidly. They devour birds, raccoons, pet cats and dogs, deer and alligators. Tens of thousands of these snakes now live in the Everglades and they may spread to other swampy wetlands in the southern half of the US. Bioinvaders also affect aquatic systems and are blamed for about of fish extinctions in the US between 1900 and 2009 The Great Lakes of North America have been invaded more than 185 alien species. At least 13 of the recent invading species threaten some native species and cause billions of dollars in damages. sea lamprey. Zebra mussel displaced some species, depleted the food supply for others and clogged pipes, shutting down water intake pipes for power plants and city water supplies, jammed ship rudders, and grown in huge masses on boat hulls, piers and other solid surfaces. Harmful Invasive Species 4. Prevention is the best way to reduce threats from invasive species Scientists suggest several ways to do this: Fund a massive research program to identify the major characteristics that allow species to become successful invaders and the types of ecosystems that are vulnerable to invaders. Greatly increase ground surveys and satellite observations to detect and monitor species invasions and to develop better models for predicting how they will spread and what harmful effects they might have. Identify major harmful invader species and establish international treaties banning their transfer from one country to another, as is now done for endangered species, while stepping up inspection of imported goods to enforce such bans. Require cargo ships to discharge their ballast water and replace it with saltwater at sea before entering ports or require them to sterilize such water or to pump nitrogen into the water to displace dissolved oxygen and kill most invader organisms. Educate the public about the environmentally harmful effects of releasing exotic plants and pets into the environment near where they live. Ways we can slow or prevent the spread of invasive species 1. Do not capture or buy wild plants and animals 2. Do not remove wild plants from their natural areas 3. Do not release wild pets back into nature 4. Do not dump the contents of an aquarium into waterways, wetlands, or storm drains. 5. When camping, use wood found near your campsite instead of bringing firewood from somewhere else. 6. Do not dump unused bait into waterways. 7. After dogs visit woods or the water, brush them before taking them home. 8. After each use, clean your mountain bike, canoe, boat, motor, and trailer, all fishing tackle, hiking boots, and other gear before heading for home. 5. Population growth, overconsumption, pollution, and climate change can cause species extinctions Past and projected human population growth and excessive and wasteful consumption of resources have greatly expanded the human ecological footprint, impacting other species. Pollution also threatens some species with extinction, as has been shown the unintended effects of certain pesticides. Each year pesticides kill about of the honeybee colonies that pollinate almost of U. food crops, kill more than 67 million birds and million fish each year, and threaten about of the endangered and threatened species. The pesticide DDT can be biomagnified about 10 million times in an estuary food chain, causing animals such as the osprey, brown pelican and bald eagles to die. Projected climate change could help drive a quarter to half of all land animals and plants to extinction the end of this century. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: DDT is a chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT is biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher tropic level. (Dots in this figure represent DDT.) The concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms was biomagnified about 10 million times in this food chain in an estuary on Long Island Sound in the U. state of New York. If each phytoplankton organism takes up and retains one unit of DDT, a small thousands of zooplankton (which feed on the phytoplankton) will store thousands of units of DDT in its fatty tissue. Each large fish that eats ten of the smaller fish will ingest and store tens of thousands of units, and each bird (or human) that eats several large fish will ingest hundreds of thousands of units. Whalers killed an estimated 1 million whales between 1925 and 1975, driving 8 of the 11 major species to commercial extinction and driving the blue whale, the largest animal, to the brink of biological extinction. The International Whaling Commission estimates some whale species are recovering, but many conservationists fear that opening the door to any commercial whaling may weaken international disapproval and legal sanctions. Despite the ban on whaling, more than whales were hunted and killed between 1986 and 2010, mostly the nations of Japan, Norway, and Iceland, which have openly defied the ban. 5. We can establish wildlife refuges and other protected areas In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt established the first U. federal wildlife refuge at Pelican Island, Florida, to help protect birds such as the brown pelican from extinction. The National Wildlife Refuge System grew to 553 refuges 2011. More than of the refuges serve as wetland sanctuaries that are vital for protecting migratory waterfowl. of U. endangered and threatened species have habitats in the refuge system, and some refuges have been set aside for specific endangered species, such as Key deer, the brown pelican, and the trumpeter swan. Harmful activities to wildlife such as mining, oil drilling, and use of vehicles occur in nearly of the wildlife refuges. Wildlife refuges receive little a third of them have no staff, and structures in some refuges are in disrepair. 6. Gene banks, botanical gardens, and wildlife farms can help to protect species Gene or seed banks preserve genetic information and endangered plant species storing their seeds in refrigerated, environments. More than 100 seed banks worldwide collectively hold about 3 million samples, however: Some species cannot be preserved in gene banks. The banks are expensive to operate and can be destroyed fires and other mishaps. A new underground vault on a remote island in the Arctic will eventually contain 100 million of the seeds and will not be vulnerable to power losses, fires, storms, or war. The 1,600 botanical gardens and arboreta contain living plants, representing almost of the known plant species but only about of the rare and threatened plant species. Some endangered or threatened species are raised on farms for commercial sale, such as alligator farms in Florida and butterfly Papua New Guinea. 7. Zoos and aquariums can protect some species Zoos, aquariums, game parks, and animal research centers are being used to preserve some individuals of critically endangered animal species, with the goal of reintroducing the species into protected wild habitats. Two preserving techniques are: 1. Egg pulling, where wild eggs laid critically endangered bird species are collected and then hatched in zoos or research centers. 2. Captive breeding, where some or all of the wild individuals of a critically endangered species are captured for breeding in captivity, with the aim of reintroducing the offspring into the wild. 3. Limited space and budgets restrict efforts to maintain breeding populations of endangered animal species that are large enough to avoid extinction through accident, disease, or loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding. 8. The precautionary principle Biodiversity scientists call for us to take precautionary action to help prevent premature extinctions and loss of biodiversity. The principle advocates that when substantial preliminary evidence indicates that an activity can harm human health or the environment, we should take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce such harm even if some of the relationships have not been established scientifically. Using limited financial and human resources to protect biodiversity based on the precautionary principle involves dealing with three important questions: How do we allocate limited resources between protecting species and protecting their habitats? How do we decide which species should get the most attention in our efforts to protect species? How do we determine which areas of land and water are the most critical to protect? Three Big Ideas 1. We are greatly increasing the extinction of wild species destroying and degrading their habitats, introducing harmful invasive species, and increasing human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation. 2. We should avoid causing the extinction of wild species because of the economic and ecological services they provide, and because their existence should not depend primarily on their usefulness to us. 3. We can work to prevent the extinction of species and to protect overall biodiversity using laws and treaties, protecting wildlife sanctuaries, and making greater use of the precautionary principle. Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach What are the major threats to forest ecosystems? 1. Forests vary in their age, and origins Natural and planted forests occupy about of the land surface (excluding Greenland and Antarctica). Two major types based on their age and structure: a. Old growth forest: Uncut or regenerated primary forest that has not been seriously disturbed human activities or natural disasters for several hundred years or more. b. forest: A stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession that develops after the trees in an area have been removed human activities such as for timber or cropland or natural forces such as fire, hurricanes, or volcanic eruption. A tree plantation (tree farm, commercial forest), is a managed tract with uniformly aged trees of one or two genetically uniform species that usually are harvested as soon as they become commercially valuable. Forests provide important economic and ecological services. Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in organic compounds (biomass) through photosynthesis. Forests help to stabilize the temperature and slow projected climate change. Forests provide many important economic and ecological services Ecological Services Economic Services Support energy flow and chemical cycling Fuelwood Reduces soil erosion Lumber Absorb and release water Pulp to make paper Purify water and air Mining Influence local and regional climate Livestock grazing Store atmospheric carbon Recreation Provide numerous wildlife habitats Jobs The short rotation cycle of cutting and regrowth of a monoculture tree plantation 2. Unsustainable logging is a major threat to forest ecosystems The first step in harvesting trees is to build roads for access and timber removal, but they can cause the following problems: Increased erosion and sediment runoff into waterways. Habitat fragmentation. Loss of biodiversity. Forest exposure to invasion nonnative pests, diseases, and wildlife species. Methods of harvesting trees: Selective cutting. Strip cutting. SCIENCE FOCUS: Putting a Price Tag on Ecological Services. Market tools such as regulations, taxes, and subsidies can encourage protection of biodiversity. The forests and other ecosystems will continue to be degraded with current prices of goods and services. 3. Fire can threaten or benefit forest ecosystems Surface fires usually burn only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor. Kills seedlings and small trees but spares most mature trees and allows most wild animals to escape. Burns away flammable ground material and may help to prevent more destructive fires. Frees valuable mineral nutrients tied up in slowly decomposing litter and undergrowth. Releases seeds from the cones of lodgepole pines. Stimulates the germination of certain tree seeds (e. giant sequoia and jack pine). Helps to control tree diseases and insects. Crown fires are extremely hot fires that leap from treetops, burning whole trees. Can destroy most vegetation, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion, and burn or damage human structures in their paths. CONNECTIONS: Climate Change and Forest Fires. Rising temperatures and increased drought from projected climate change will likely make many forest areas more suitable for insect pests, which would then multiply and kill more trees. Drying forests will probably experience more fires, producing increases in the greenhouse gas CO2, which then increases atmospheric temperatures. 4. Almost half of the forests have been cut down Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture, settlements, or other uses. Human activities have reduced the original forest cover about with most of this loss occurring in the last 60 years. If current deforestation rates continue, about of the remaining intact forests will have been logged or converted to other uses within two decades, if not sooner. Clearing large areas of forests, especially forests, has important economic benefits, but it also has a number of harmful environmental effects. The net total forest cover in several countries changed very little or even increased between and 2007. Some due to natural reforestation secondary ecological succession on cleared forest areas and abandoned croplands, or the spread of tree plantations. Concern about the growing amount of land occupied commercial tree plantations, because replacement of forests these biologically simplified tree farms represents a loss of biodiversity, and possibly of stability, in some forest ecosystems. Harmful effects of Deforestation 1. Decreased soil fertility from erosion 2. Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems 3. Premature extinction of species with specialized niches 4. Loss of habitat for native species and migratory species such as birds and butterflies 5. Regional climate change from extensive clearing 6. Release of CO2 into atmosphere 7. Acceleration of flooding CASE STUDY: Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back Forests that cover about of the U. land area provide habitats for more than of the wildlife species and supply about of the surface water. Today, forests in the U. cover more area than they did in 1920, primarily due to secondary succession. Every year, more wood is grown in the U. than is cut and the total area planted with trees increases. Protected forests make up about Since the an increasing area of the remaining and fairly diverse secondgrowth forests has been cut down and replaced with biologically simplified tree plantations. 5. Tropical forests are disappearing rapidly Tropical forests cover about of the land area. At least half of the known species of terrestrial plants and animals live in tropical forests. Brazil has more than of the remaining tropical rain forest in its vast Amazon basin. At the current rate of global deforestation, of the remaining tropical forests will be gone or severely degraded the end of this century. 6. Causes of tropical deforestation are varied and complex There are a number of interconnected underlying and direct causes. Pressures from population growth and poverty, push subsistence farmers and the landless poor into tropical forests, where they try to grow enough food to survive. Government subsidies can accelerate the direct causes such as logging and ranching reducing the costs of timber harvesting, cattle grazing, and the creation of vast plantations of crops such as soybeans. Tropical forests in the Amazon and other South American countries are for cattle grazing and large soybean plantations. In Southeast Asia, tropical forests are being replaced with vast plantations of oil palm, whose oil is used in cooking, cosmetics, and biodiesel fuel for motor vehicles. In Africa, people struggle to survive clearing plots for farming and harvesting wood for fuel, which is causing deforestation on that continent. CONNECTIONS: Burning Tropical Forests and Climate Change. The burning of tropical forests releases CO2 into the atmosphere, which is projected to warm the atmosphere and change the global climate at an increasing rate during this century. These fires account for at least of all greenhouse gas emissions. In the Philippines, how much forest cover had been lost in the last century? Philippines. about Philippines is forested. Of this, roughly classified as primary forest, the most biodiverse form of forest. Change in Forest Cover: Between 1990 and Philippines lost an average of 262,500 hectares of forest per year. Major underlying and direct causes of the destruction and degradation of tropical forests Parks in countries have the greatest biodiversity of all parks, but only about of these parklands are protected. CASE STUDY: Stresses on U. Public Parks The U. national park system, established in 1912, includes 58 major national parks, along with 335 monuments and historic sites. States, counties, and cities also operate public parks. Popularity is one of the biggest problems. Noisy and polluting vehicles degrade the aesthetic experience for many visitors, destroy or damage fragile vegetation, and disturb wildlife. Many suffer damage from the migration or deliberate introduction of nonnative species. Native of them threatened or killed or removed illegally. CONNECTIONS: National Parks and Climate Change. U. park properties in places such as Key West, Florida, Ellis Island in New York Harbor, and Everglades National Park will likely be underwater later in this century if sea levels rise as projected. As climate zones shift in a warmer world, 2030, Glacier National Park may not have any glaciers and the saguaro cactus may disappear from Saguaro National Park. 2. Nature reserves occupy only a small part of the land As of 2010, less than of the land area was strictly or partially protected in nature reserves, parks, wildlife refuges, wilderness, and other areas. No more than of the land is strictly protected from potentially harmful human activities. Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least of the land area in a global system of biodiversity. Developers and resource extractors oppose protection and contend that these areas might contain valuable resources that would add to current economic growth. Ecologists and conservation biologists view protected areas as islands of biodiversity and natural capital that help to sustain all life and economies and serve as centers of evolution. The buffer zone concept strictly protects an inner core of a reserve and establishes buffer zones in which local people can extract resources sustainably without harming the inner core. 2010, the United Nations had used this principle to create a global network of 553 biosphere reserves in 109 countries. SCIENCE FOCUS: Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone reintroduced the wolf as an experiment in ecosystem restoration. Project appears successful but decades of research will be needed to better understand the wolves and to unravel many other interacting factors in this complex ecosystem. CASE STUDY: Costa Global Conservation Leader Tropical forests once completely covered Costa Rica, but between 1963 and 1983 much of the forests were cleared to graze cattle. Costa Rica is a superpower of biodiversity, with an estimated plant and animal species. Costa Rica now has a system of nature reserves and national parks that, 2010, included about a quarter of its land. Costa Rica now devotes a larger proportion of its land to biodiversity conservation than does any other country The largest source of income is its tourism industry, almost of which involves ecotourism. To reduce deforestation, the government has cut subsidies for converting forest to rangeland. The government pays landowners to maintain or restore tree cover. Between 2007 and 2008, the government planted nearly 14 million trees. Went from having one of the highest deforestation rates to having one of the lowest. 3. Protecting wilderness is an important way to preserve biodiversity One way to protect undeveloped lands is to set them aside as wilderness, land officially designated as an area where natural communities have not been seriously disturbed humans and where human activities are limited law. Some critics oppose protecting large areas for their scenic and recreational value for a relatively small number of people. Conservation biologists support protecting wilderness in order to preserve biodiversity and as centers for evolution. CASE STUDY: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the United States Conservationists have been trying to save wild areas from development since 1900. The Wilderness Act (1964) allowed the government to protect undeveloped tracts of public land from development as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System. Only about of the land area of the lower 48 states is protected, most of it in the West. What is the ecosystem approach to sustaining biodiversity? 1. Here are four ways to protect ecosystems: Most biologists and wildlife conservationists believe that the best way to keep from hastening the extinction of wild species through human activities is the ecosystems approach, which protects threatened habitats and ecosystem services. plan of the ecosystems approach: Map the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and create an inventory of the species contained in each of them and the ecosystem services they provide. Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis on protecting plant biodiversity and ecosystem services. Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible. 2. Protecting global biodiversity hotspots is an urgent priority Some biodiversity scientists urge adoption of an emergency action strategy to identify and quickly protect biodiversity hotspots, areas especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and are in great danger of extinction. These hotspots cover only a little more than of the land surface, they contain an estimated of the flowering plant species and of all terrestrial species. These hotspots are home for a large majority of the endangered or critically endangered species, and of the population. 3. We can rehabilitate and restore ecosystems that we have damaged Almost every natural place on the earth has been affected or degraded to some degree human activities. We can at least partially reverse much of this harm through ecological restoration: the process of repairing damage caused humans to the biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems. Examples of restoration include: replanting forests restoring grasslands restoring coral reefs restoring wetlands and stream banks reintroducing native species removing invasive species freeing river flows removing dams. Four steps to speed up repair operations include the following: a. Restoration. b. Rehabilitation. c. Replacement. d. Creating artificial ecosystems. Researchers have suggested a strategy for carrying out most forms of ecological restoration and rehabilitation: Identify the causes of the degradation. Stop the abuse eliminating or sharply reducing these factors. If necessary, reintroduce key species to help restore natural ecological processes. Protect the area from further degradation and allow secondary ecological succession to occur. SCIENCE FOCUS: Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica. One of the largest ecological restoration projects. Small, tropical dry forest was burned, degraded, and fragmented for conversion of the area to cattle ranches and farms. The forest is being restored and reconnected to a rain forest on near mountain slopes, with the goal of reestablishing a tropical ecosystem over the next years. The project serves as a training ground in tropical forest restoration for scientists from all over the world. 4. We can share areas we dominate with other species Reconciliation ecology is the science that focuses on inventing, establishing, and maintaining new habitats to conserve species diversity in places where people live, work, or play. Examples include: Protecting local wildlife and ecosystems can provide economic resources for their communities encouraging sustainable forms of ecotourism. Protecting vital insect pollinators such as native butterflies and bees reducing the use of pesticides, planting flowering plants as a source of food for pollinating insect species, and building structures which serve as hives for pollinating bees. Protecting bluebirds within habitats where most of the nesting trees have been cut down using nesting boxes and keeping house cats away from nesting bluebirds. CASE STUDY: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods Industrial fishing fleets dominate the marine fishing industry, using global satellite positioning equipment, sonar devices, huge nets and long fishing lines, spotter planes, and gigantic refrigerated factory ships that can process and freeze their catches. Trawler fishing is used to catch fish and shellfish dragging a net held open at the neck along the ocean bottom. fishing is used to catch fish using a spotter plane to locate a the fishing vessel then encloses it with a large net called a purse seine. Longlining involves lines up to 130 kilometers (80 miles) long, hung with thousands of baited hooks to catch fish species or bottom fishes. fishing catches fish with huge drifting nets that can hang as deep as 15 meters (50 feet) below the surface and extend to 64 kilometers (40 miles) long. can trap and kill large quantities of unwanted fish, called catch, along with marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds. Almost of the annual fish catch weight consists of catch species, which are mostly thrown overboard dead or dying. Major Commercial Fishing Methods Ways you can help sustain terrestrial biodiversity 1. Adopt a forest 2. Plant trees and take care of them 3. Recycle paper and buy recycle paper products 4. Choose wood substitutes such as bamboo furniture and recycled plastic outdoor furniture, decking, and fencing 5. Help to restore a near degraded forest or grassland 6. Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants that are native to your area How can we help to sustain aquatic biodiversity? 1. Human activities are destroying and degrading aquatic biodiversity Human activities have destroyed or degraded a large portion of the coastal wetlands, coral reefs, mangroves, and ocean bottom, and disrupted many of the freshwater ecosystems. Rising sea levels are likely to destroy many coral reefs and flood some islands along with their protective coastal mangrove forests. Loss and degradation of many habitats caused dredging operations and trawler fishing boats. In freshwater aquatic zones, dam building and excessive water withdrawal from rivers for irrigation and urban water supplies destroy aquatic habitats, degrade water flows, and disrupt freshwater biodiversity. The deliberate or accidental introduction of hundreds of harmful invasive species threatens aquatic biodiversity. percent of the known marine fish species and of the freshwater fish species face premature extinction. 2. Overfishing: gone fish gone A fishery is a concentration of a particular wild aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water. The fishprint is defined as the area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average person, a nation, or the world. percent of the fisheries are fully exploited, are moderately overexploited, and are overexploited or depleted. Overharvesting has led to the collapse of some of the major fisheries. When overharvesting causes larger predatory species to dwindle, rapidly reproducing invasive species can more easily take over and disrupt ocean food webs. 3. We can protect and sustain marine biodiversity Protecting marine biodiversity is difficult for several reasons. The human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding so rapidly into aquatic areas that it is difficult to monitor the impacts. Much of the damage to the oceans and other bodies of water is not visible to most people. Many people incorrectly view the seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb an almost infinite amount of waste and pollution and still produce all the seafood we want. Most of the ocean area lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country and is thus an openaccess resource and subject to overexploitation. Several ways to protect and sustain marine biodiversity: Protect endangered and threatened aquatic species. Establish protected marine sanctuaries. Protect whole marine ecosystems within a global network of fully protected marine reserves. INDIVIDUALS MATTER: Sylvia of the Oceans Sylvia Earle is an oceanographer, explorer, author, and lecturer. For decades, she has been a global leader in publicizing the urgent need to increase our understanding of the global ocean that helps support all life and to protect much more of it from harmful human activities. research has focused on the ecology and conservation of marine ecosystems, with an emphasis on developing exploration technology. She has been the Chief Scientist of the U. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and founded three companies devoted to developing submarines and other devices for exploration and research. In the past, it was assumed that the best way to preserve biodiversity was to conserve it through protected areas reducing human activities or completely excluding humans. Population growth and poverty were seen as main causes of environmental people were regarded as a problem from which the environment needed protecting. Accordingly, protected areas and parks were fenced off from local people, traditional practices were prohibited, and people were held under penalties of fines or imprisonments for utilising park resources. However, there are very controversial scientific and social problems with this approach, which was characterized serious conflicts between local communities and the state. This therefore led to a transformation in thinking and the recognition that: 1. Local people understand their environment and have extensive knowledge of the resources within their local environment 2. The exclusion of local people from protected areas may actually lead to impoverishment of their biological diversity, with both ecological and social costs 3. Traditional practices enable people to live with nature in a mutually beneficial way. For example, instead of banning hunting altogether, a series of regulations could be put in place to regulate hunting, i., prohibitions on killing juveniles, or pregnant females 4. Many communities still do not see wildlife and the environment as their own property because they are not involved in and have little responsibility in conservation projects 5. Revenues earned from PAs have not always been passed on to communities PA management has taken on a more holistic approach to assessing biodiversity and environmental protection it has to be effective in linking conservation with human needs. PA management must take into account the local realities, that is, policy formulation must be based on a more realistic understanding of the social and political dimensions of natural resources management. PROTECTED AREAS IN THE PHILIPPINES refer to the GUIDEBOOK of protected areas DENR Bioprospecting for Pharmaceutical Products and Indigenous Knowledge Bioprospecting Biodiversity prospecting or bioprospecting is the systematic search for biochemical and genetic information in nature in order to develop products for: Pharmaceutical Agricultural cosmetic other applications Bioprospecting is possible both in terrestrial and marine environments. Many molecules, such as trabecetidin (an antitumor agent) and eribulin (used to treat breast cancer), were discovered from marine organisms. Phases of Bioprospecting 1. Sample collection 2. Isolation 3. Characterization 4. Product development 5. Commercialization Summary of the general approaches in extraction, isolation and characterization of bioactive compound from plants extract 3. Local populations will become increasingly aware of the potential economic value of natural habitats, providing incentives to the domestic population for biodiversity conservation. 4. It promotes innovation, helping countries to develop new pharmaceutical products. 5. It also favors employment opportunities related to natural 6. It helps to preserve traditional culture and habits rediscovering ancient native practices. Disadvantages of Bioprospecting 1. Bioprospecting is and high risk in terms of expected 2. Even the most advanced legal frameworks often fail to offer sufficient protection to traditional 3. The Nagoya Protocol coverage is still limited, increasing the risks of biopiracy from countries. Bioprospecting and Nagoya Protocol Bioprospecting activities must comply with the definition of utilization of genetic resources of the Nagoya Protocol. Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, and entered into force on 12 October 2014. It has been ratified 107 parties, which includes 106 UN member states and the European Union Nagoya Protocol aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, there contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Bioprospecting and Indigeneous Knowledge Extract the maximum commercial value from genetic resources and indigenous knowledge Creating a fair compensation system that can benefit all Biopiracy Biopiracy is a practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous peoples, is used others for profit, without authorization or compensation to the indigenous people themselves. Biopiracy practices contribute to inequality between developing countries rich in biodiversity, and developed countries hosting biotech firms. Famous Case of Biopiracy The Maya ICBG bioprospecting controversy took place in The International Cooperative Biodiversity Group led ethnobiologist Brent Berlin was accused of being engaged in unethical forms of bioprospecting several NGOs and indigenous organizations. The ICBG aimed to document the biodiversity of Chiapas, Mexico and the ethnobotanical knowledge of the indigenous Maya. The possibilities of developing medical products based on any of the plants used the indigenous groups. Advantages of Bioprospecting 1. It creates an incentive to monitor and preserve biodiversity in order to avoid the risk of losing economic opportunities from competitors or extinction. 2. It promotes technology and knowledge transfer among countries and along with foreign direct investment. The Risks of Bioprospecting 1. The returns from bioprospecting are bioprospecting success rates have been low. 2. Unequal capacities of host country stakeholders lead to unfair negotiation outcomes over benefit sharing. 3. The negotiation of bioprospecting contracts can be difficult, including the determination of a fair price for exploration and commercialization. 4. The enforcement of the legal framework, including biopiracy and intellectual property theft linked to low capacity in enforcing laws and international treaties. 5. Legal risks, including of litigation in multiple conflicts of jurisdiction (e. Antarctica) are more frequent in marine 6. Unsustainable harvesting of resources and other negative environmental 7. Social tension in local communities that might perceive being unfairly treated. The Positive Impact of Bioprospecting can be maximized : 1. Stronger legal and enforcement measures against biopiracy. 2. More environmental friendly bioprospecting operations. 3. More effective use of resources and stronger negotiation capacities in the source country (to increase revenues). 4. Greater investment in research and productive capacities in the source country to allow local companies and universities to participate in the whole value chain. 5. More robust Access Benefit Sharing (ABS) frameworks to protect the culture and interests of the local communities. All bioprospecting agreements should respect the customs, traditions, values, and customary practices of indigenous and local communities which genetic resources have been obtained. Bioprospecting in the Philippines EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 247 PRESCRIBING GUIDELINES AND ESTABLISHING A REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROSPECTING OF BIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC RESOURCES, PRODUCT AND DERIVATIVES, FOR SCIENTIFIC AND COMMERCIAL AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES, Issued on 18 May 1995 Implementing Rules and Regulations on the Prospecting of Biological and Genetic Resources in the Philippines, Administrative Order No. Who are the Stakeholders? What is at stake? Government agencies as policy makers State DENR, DOH, DA (agriculture), or DOST, DTI, DFA (for international PAWB (Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau) and other agencies Indigenous communities Local communities Academic institutions for research purposes Universities, Research Institutes collector NGO representative organization At stake: Natural sources abuse, misuse and depletion A wide range of research topics are examined within this discipline, including social interactions, agency, empathy, morality, and social prejudice and affiliations. Human Health and Reproduction: Philippine Setting Issues 1. Attachment 2. Depression 3. Drug Addiction Attachment Theory The seeking of protection when anxious which is triggered external threats or behaviors. Who is an Attachment Figure? In the first few years of life when children are learning about relationships, their primary attachment figures are parents and in adulthood, that is usually a spouse or significant other. Neurobiology of Attachment Daniel Siegel, in his book, The Developing Mind states early childhood experiences with caretakers allow the brain cortex) to organize in particular ways, which forms the basis for later interpersonal functioning. childhood, particularly the first two years of life, attachment relationships help the immature brain use the mature functions of the brain to develop important capacities related to interpersonal functioning. The relationship with attachment figures facilitates neural pathways to develop, particularly in the frontal lobes where the aforementioned capacities are wired into the developing caretakers are to provide sensitive parenting (e. attunement to the infants signals and are able to soothe distress, as well as amplify positive experiences), the child feels a haven of safety when in the presence of their caretaker(s). Repeated positive experiences also become encoded in the brain (implicitly in the early years and explicitly as the child gets older) as mental models or schemata of attachment, which serve to help the child feel an internal sense of what John Bowl called secure in the world. These positive mental models of self and others are carried into other relationships as the child Experts in the neurosciences have identified the last trimester in utero together with the first three years of life as the period during which the brain is most receptive and sensitive to certain emotional and social experiences, such as loving and soothing, which help to grow the brain. Violence and emotional neglect, on the other hand, affect the growth of the brain and lead to hormonal high stress and even toxic stress (Manala, 2016). Mental Health and Depression 3 Filipinos suffer from depressive disorders (highest among ASEAN countries), with suicide rates (lowest) in 2 males and 1 females per of the population Comprehensive Mental Health Act Giving rights to individuals suffering from mental illness: protection from abuse and discrimination access to right mental health care and facilities recognition of other forms of treatment implementing basic mental health education and awareness Drug Addiction Nagsisimula sa Pamilya. The Noel Torres Story. Ano ang Solusyon? WHO: Human Rights and Health The WHO Constitution (1946) envisages highest attainable standard of health as a fundamental right of every human Understanding health as a human right creates a legal obligation on states to ensure access to timely, acceptable, and affordable health care of appropriate quality as well as to providing for the underlying determinants of health, such as safe and potable water, sanitation, food, housing, information and education, and gender equality. A obligation to support the right to health including through the allocation of available to progressively realise this goal is reviewed through various international human rights mechanisms, such as the Universal Periodic Review, or the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In many cases, the right to health has been adopted into domestic law or Constitutional law. A approach to health requires that health policy and programs must prioritize the needs of those furthest behind first towards greater equity, a principle that has been echoed in the recently adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Universal Health Coverage. (1) The right to health must be enjoyed without discrimination on the grounds of race, age, ethnicity or any other status. and equality requires states to take steps to redress any discriminatory law, practice or policy. Another feature of approaches is meaningful participation. Participation means ensuring that national stakeholders including actors such as organizations are meaningfully involved in all phases of programming: assessment, analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Health Programs in the Philippines 1. Outcome 1: Improved Financial Health Risk Protection PhilHealth Benefits: Expanded Z Benefit Package for Colon and Rectum Cancers, Point of Care (POC) Enrollment Program, Enhanced Primary Care Package (TSeKaP), Extended Dialysis Coverage 2. Outcome 2: Greater Access to Healthcare Services 3. Outcome 3: Public Health Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Achieved problems. It also includes sexual health, the purpose of which is the enhancement of life and personal relations. . . . Reproductive health rights refers to the rights of individuals and couples to decided freely and responsibly whether or not to have the number, spacing and timing of their children, to make other decisions concerning reproduction, free of discrimination, coercion and to have the information and means to do so, and to attain the highest standard of sexual health and reproductive Provided, however That reproductive health rights do not include abortion, and access to All accredited public health facilities shall provide a full range of modern family planning methods, which shall also include medical consultations, supplies and necessary and reasonable procedures for poor and marginalized couples having infertililty issues who desire to have children.. No person shall be denied information and access to famly planning services, whether natural or artificial: Provided, That minors will not be allowed access to modern methods of family planning without written consent from their parents or guardians, except when the minor is already a parent or has had a miscarriage. 13 sexual reproductive health rights 1. The Right to Life This means, among other things, that no life should be put at risk reason of pregnancy, gender or lack of access to health information and services. This also includes the right to be safe and satisfying sex life. 2. The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person This recognizes that no woman should be subjected to forced pregnancy, forced sterilization or forced abortion. 3. The Right to Equality, and to be free from all Forms of Discrimination This includes, among other things, freedom from discrimination because of sexuality and reproductive life choices. 4. The Right to Privacy This means that all sexual and reproductive health care services should be confidential in terms of physical information given or shared the clients, and access to records or reports. 5. The Right to Freedom of Thought This means that all sexual and reproductive health care services should be confidential in terms of physical information given or shared the clients, and access to records or reports. 6. The Right to Information and Education This includes access to full information on the benefits, risks and effectiveness of all methods of fertility regulation, in order that all decisions taken are made on the basis of full, free and informed consent. 7. The Right to Choose Whether or Not to Marry and to Found and Plan a Family This includes the right of persons to protection against a requirement to marry without consent. It also includes the right of individuals to choose to remain single without discrimination and coercion. 8. The Right to Decide Whether or When to Have Children This includes the right of persons to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children and to have access to related information and education. 9. The Right to Health Care and Health Protection This includes the right of clients to the highest possible quality of health care, and the right to be free from harmful traditional health practices. 10. The Right to the Benefits of Scientific Progress This includes the right of sexual and reproductive health service of clients to avail of the new reproductive health technologies that are safe, effective, and acceptable. 11. The Right to Freedom of Assembly and Political Participation This includes the right of all persons to seek to influence communities and governments to prioritize sexual and reproductive health and rights. 12. The Right to be Free From Torture and This includes the rights of all women, men and young people to protection from violence, sexual exploitation and abuse. 13. The Right to Development This includes the right of all individuals to access development opportunities and benefits, especially in processes that affect life. Environmental Hazards and Human Health What major health hazards do we face? 1. Risks are usually expressed as probabilities A risk is the probability of suffering harm from a hazard that can cause injury, disease, death, economic loss, or damage. mathematical statement about the likelihood that harm will be suffered from a hazard. lifetime probability of developing lung cancer from smoking one pack of cigarettes per day is 1 in This means that 1 of every 250 people who smoke a pack of cigarettes every day will likely develop lung cancer over a typical lifetime. Risk assessment is the process of using statistical methods to estimate how much harm a particular hazard can cause to human health or to the environment. It helps us to establish priorities for avoiding or managing risks. Risk management involves deciding whether or how to reduce a particular risk to a certain degree. Risk Assessment and Risk Management Risk assessment is the process of using statistical methods to estimate how much harm a particular hazard can cause to human health or to the environment. It helps us to establish priorities for avoiding or managing risks. Hazard identification. Probability of risk. Consequences of risk. Risk management involves deciding whether or how to reduce a particular risk to a certain degree. Comparative risk analysis. Risk reduction. Risk reduction strategy. Financial commitment. 2. We face many types of hazards. Biological hazards from more than 1,400 pathogens that can infect humans. A pathogen is an organism that can cause disease in another organism. i. Bacteria. iv. Protozoa. ii. Viruses. v. Fungi. Parasites. Chemical hazards from harmful chemicals in air, water, soil, food, and products. Natural hazards such as fire, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and storms. Cultural hazards such as unsafe working conditions, unsafe highways, criminal assault, and poverty. Lifestyle choices such as smoking, making poor food choices, drinking too much alcohol, and having unsafe sex. What types of biological hazards do we face? 1. Some diseases can spread from one person to another An infectious disease is caused when a pathogen such as a bacterium, virus, or parasite invades the body and multiplies in its cells and tissues. Tuberculosis, flu, malaria, and measles. Bacteria are organisms that are found everywhere. Most are harmless or beneficial. A bacterial disease results from an infection as the bacteria multiply and spread throughout the body. Viruses are smaller than bacteria and work invading a cell and taking over its genetic machinery to copy themselves. They then multiply and spread throughout body, causing a viral disease such as flu or AIDS A transmissible disease is an infectious bacterial or viral disease that can be transmitted from one person to another. A disease is caused something other than a living organism and does not spread from one person to another. Examples include cardiovascular (heart and blood vessel) diseases, most cancers, asthma, and diabetes. In 1900, infectious disease was the leading cause of death in the world. Greatly reduced a combination of better health care, the use of antibiotics to treat infectious diseases caused bacteria, and the development of vaccines. Ways infectious disease organisms can enter the human body 1. Pets 5. Food 2. Livestock 6. Water 3. Wild Animals 7. Air 4. Insects 2. Infectious diseases are still major health threats Infectious diseases remain as serious health threats, especially in countries. Spread through air, water, food, and body fluids. A outbreak of an infectious disease in an area is called an epidemic. A global epidemic such as tuberculosis or AIDS is called a pandemic. Many bacteria have developed genetic immunity to widely used antibiotics and many species of insects such as mosquitoes have become immune to widely used pesticides that once helped to control their populations. 3. Viral diseases and parasites kill large numbers of people Viruses evolve quickly, are not affected antibiotics, and can kill large numbers of people. The biggest killer is the influenza, or flu, virus, which is transmitted the body fluids or airborne emissions of an infected person. The second biggest viral killer is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV infects about 1 million people each year, and the complications resulting from AIDS kill about 1 million people annually. The third largest viral killer is the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which damages the liver and kills about a million people each year. Transmitted unsafe sex, sharing of needles drug users, infected mothers who pass the virus to their offspring before or during birth, and exposure to infected blood. Emergent diseases are illnesses that were previously unknown or were absent in human populations for at least 20 years. One is the West Nile virus, which is transmitted to humans the bite of a common mosquito that is infected when it feeds on birds that carry the virus. Greatly reduce your chances of getting infectious diseases practicing good, hygiene. Wash your hands thoroughly and frequently. Avoid touching your face. Stay away from people who have flu or other viral diseases. CASE STUDY: The Global Epidemic. The global spread of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), caused infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), is a major global health threat. In 2009, a total of about 33 million people worldwide (1 million in the United States) are living with HIV. Between 1981 and 2009, more than 27 million people died of diseases. AIDS has reduced the life expectancy of the 750 million people living in Africa from 62 to 47 years, on average, and to 40 years in the seven countries most severely affected AIDS. Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent HIV infection and no cure for AIDS. CASE STUDY: Mosquitoes. Almost half of the people are at risk from malaria, as is anyone traveling to areas, because there is no vaccine that can prevent this disease. More than of victims live in Africa. Malaria is caused a parasite that is spread the bites of certain mosquito species. Infects and destroys red blood cells, causing intense fever, chills, drenching sweats, anemia, severe abdominal pain, headaches, vomiting, extreme weakness, and greater susceptibility to other diseases. Kills an average of at least 2,700 people per day. Working to develop new antimalarial drugs, vaccines, and biological controls. Distribute free or inexpensive bed nets. Zinc and vitamin A supplements could be used to boost resistance to malaria in children. Spray the insides of homes with low concentrations of the pesticide DDT twice a year at a low cost. CONNECTIONS: Deforestation and Malaria Clearing and developing tropical forests has led to the local spread of malaria. A loss of tree cover in one part of Amazon forest led to a increase in malaria in that study area. Deforestation may create pools of water that make ideal breeding ponds for mosquitoes. 4. We can reduce the incidence of infectious diseases The percentage of global death rate from infectious diseases decreased from to between 1970 and 2006 and is projected to drop to 2015. From immunizations of children in developing countries to prevent tetanus, measles, diphtheria, typhoid fever, and polio increased from to about 10 million lives each year. An important breakthrough has been the development of simple oral rehydration administering a simple solution of boiled water, salt, and sugar or rice. CONNECTIONS: Drinking Water, Latrines, and Infectious Diseases. More than a third of the people do not have sanitary bathroom facilities, and more than 1 billion get their water for drinking, washing, and cooking from sources polluted animal and human feces. A key to reducing sickness and premature death from infectious disease is to focus on providing people with simple latrines and access to safe drinking water. Philanthropists have donated billions of dollars toward improving global health, with special emphasis on infectious diseases in countries. About of the population live in areas where malaria is prevalent Ways to prevent or reduce the incidence of infectious diseases 1. Increase research on tropical diseases and vaccines 2. Reduce poverty 3. Decrease malnutrition 4. Improve drinking water quality 5. Reduce unnecessary use of antibiotics 6. Educate people to take all of an antibiotic prescription 7. Reduce antibiotic use to promote livestock growth 8. Require careful hand washing all medical personnel 9. Immunize children against major viral diseases 10. Provide oral rehydration for diarrhea victims 11. Conduct global campaign to reduce What Types of Chemical Hazards do we Face? 1. A toxic chemical is one that can cause temporary or permanent harm or death to humans and animals. In 2004, the EPA listed arsenic, lead, mercury, vinyl chloride (used to make PVC plastics), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as the top five toxic substances in terms of human and environmental health. There are three major types of potentially toxic agents. a. Carcinogens are chemicals, types of radiation, or certain viruses that can cause or promote cancer. Examples are arsenic, benzene, formaldehyde, gamma radiation, PCBs, radon, certain chemicals in tobacco smoke, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and vinyl chloride. b. Mutagens are chemicals or forms of radiation that cause mutations, or changes, in the DNA molecules found in cells, or that increase the frequency of such changes. Nitrous acid (HNO2), formed the digestion of nitrite (NO2 preservatives in foods, can cause mutations linked to increases in stomach cancer in people who consume large amounts of processed foods and wine. Harmful mutations occurring in reproductive cells can be passed on to offspring and to future generations. c. Teratogens are chemicals that cause harm or birth defects to a fetus or embryo. Drinking during pregnancy can lead to offspring with low birth weight and a number of physical, developmental, behavioral, and mental problems. Other teratogens are angel dust, benzene, formaldehyde, lead, mercury, PCBs, phthalates, thalidomide, and vinyl chloride. The dose is the amount of a harmful chemical that a person has ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. Many variables can affect the level of harm caused a chemical. a. Toxic chemicals usually have a greater effect on fetuses, infants, and children than on adults. b. Toxicity also depends on genetic makeup, which determines an sensitivity to a particular toxin. c. Some individuals are sensitive to a number of condition known as multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). d. How well the detoxification systems (such as the liver, lungs, and kidneys) work. e. Solubility: toxins and or toxins. f. Persistence, or resistance to breakdown such as DDT and PCBs. g. Biological magnification, in which the concentrations of some potential toxins in the environment increase as they pass through the successive trophic levels of food chains and webs. The damage to health resulting from exposure to a chemical is called the response. Acute effect is an immediate or rapid harmful reaction ranging from dizziness and nausea to death. Chronic effect is a permanent or consequence (kidne
STS Finals-F - Science Technology and Society
Course: BS Nursing (BSN)
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