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The Origins and Foundations of Music Education Second
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First published 2017 ©Gordon Cox. Robin Stevens and Contributors. 2017 Chapter 19 South Africa: Indigenous roots. cultural imposition and an emerging national identity © Robin Stevens and Erik Akrofi. 2010 Additional material©Robin Stevens
©Marcinkevicius, Zenanas. (1974). Muzika I. Kaunas: Sviesa. Page 19. ©Vellcka, Eirimas. (1995). Muzika 2 Kaunas: Sviesa. Page 3. Gordon Cox. Robin Stevens and Contributors have asserted their right under the Copyright. Designs and Patents Act. 1988. to be identified as Authors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means. electronic or mechanical. including photocopying. recording. or any information storage or retrieval system. without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publlcation Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: PB: ePDF: ePub:
978-1-4742-2909- 978-1-4742-2908- 978-1-4742-2911- 978-1-4742-2912-
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Cox. Gordon. 1942- IStevens. Robin Sydney. 1947-. Title: The origins and foundations of music education: international perspectives / edited by Gordon Cox and Robin Stevens. Description: London; New York: Bloomsbury Academic. 2016. Identifiers: LCCN 2016012089 (print)ILCCN 2016013244 (ebook) IISBN 9781474229098 (hardback) IISBN 9781474229081 (pbk.)IISBN 9781474229111 (epdf) IISBN 9781474229128 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Music--Instruction and study--Instruction and study--History. Classification: LCC MT1 .0752016 (print)ILCC MT1 (ebook) IDOC 780--dc23 LC record available at lccn.loc/ Typeset by Fakenham Prepress Solutions. Fakenham. Norfolk NR21 8NN Printed and bound in India
Contents
List of Figures viii List of Tables ix List of Contributors x Preface and Acknowledgements xiv Foreword Sheila C. Woodward, President, International Society for Music Education xv
Introduction Gordon Cox and Robin Stevens
Part I Europe
1 Britain: Opportunities and threats equally balanced Gordon Cox 9
2 France: An uncertain and unequal combat Ftencois Madurell 22
3 Germany: Educational goals, curricular structure, political principles Wilfried Gruhn 36
4 Ireland: Curriculum development in troubled times Marie McCarthy 52
5 Kosovo: A struggle for freedom and national identity Besa Luzha 67
6 Lithuania: The continuous assertion of national identity ROta Girdzijauskien and Emilija Sakadolskis 82
Contents vii
Part IV Africa and Asia-Pacific
16 Australia: Recurring problems and unresolved issues
Robin Stevens and Jane Southcott 223
17 China: A socio-political perspective on the introduction and
development of school music Wai-Chung Ho 240
18 South Africa: Indigenous roots, cultural imposition and an
emerging national identity Robin Stevens and Eric Akrofi 256
Conclusion Gordon Cox and Robin Stevens 271
Index 281
Chapter 6
Lithuania: The continuous assertion
of national identity
Rota Girdzijauskien and Emilija Sakadolskis
The origins of Lithuanian music education
Deciding on a date from which to begin a discussion of music education in Lithuanian schooling is an interesting problem in itself. Lithuanians celebrate the year 1397 - the date of earliest documentation of the Vilnius Cathedral School - as the beginning of a formal, institutional and financially supported European-style education system in Lithuania. Schools were thought to have operated on the model of the schola cantorum of Western Europe, with Latin being the language of instruction. Here, in addition to lessons in rhetoric, dialectics, mathematics and the reading of classic texts, boys learned ecclesiastical chant and received suitable musical training to sing in church choirs and become music teachers (Jareckaite 2006). By the beginning of the fifteenth century there was a network of parish and convent or monastery schools throughout Lithuania. A limited number of parish schools for the lower classes offered basic reading and writing, singing of sacred music, as well as Latin for those considering entering the clergy. By the sixteenth century the number of parish schools had increased and there were about 150 schools in the Vilnius bishopric alone (Karciauskiene et al. 1983). The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were a time of war with neighbours of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which increasingly relied on treaties and dynastic ties with Poland to fend off invaders. This resulted in religious, political and cultural influences among the Lithuanian nobility, who increasingly preferred to speak Polish, considered the language of the gentry. This was also a time when Lithuania was moving towards a feudal system of landed nobility that included serfdom and even instances of slavery. In 1569 the two competing nation-states - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland - formed the federated Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This was the time of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation and both factions of Christianity realized that schooling was essential in the spread of ideas. The year the Commonwealth was established is also the year when the Jesuit Order was invited to Lithuania to counter the Reformation as well as to establish schools and teacher training institutions. A Jesuit professor of rhetoric, Zygimantas Liauksminas (Sigismundus Lauxmin), wrote the first music textbook published (in Latin) in Lithuania.
84 The Origins and Foundations of Music Education
among Tsarist Russia, the Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria. Yet the Commission for Education continued to function, albeit in a reduced capacity. The number of Lithuanian schools decreased dramatically and after a series of uprisings, the Tsarist authorities instituted intensive Russification. The singing of Catholic hymns in Lithuanian was to be replaced by Russian Orthodox chants. Several sources describe seminars for primary school teachers that included singing, sacred and secular music history, and the popularization of Russian folk songs (Jareckaite 2006: 173). In 1864 Russian authorities instituted a press ban prohibiting Lithuanian books and periodicals printed in the Latin alphabet and closed Lithuanian schools. Many refused to send their children to Russian-language schools, prompting civic and church leaders to encourage the foundation of mobile secret schools. Education scholar Luksiene (2014: 71-2) describes the situation: A secret network of Lithuanian schools that functioned for forty years is a unique phenomenon in educational and cultural development. Can it formally be considered a form of institutional education? It might instead be argued to have functioned as an inter- mediary form between home-education and what was normally considered schooling.
At the end of the nineteenth century more than fifty per cent of the population could read Lithuanian while only six per cent attended official schools. At the underground schools children were taught reading, writing, counting and the singing of Catholic hymns as well as Lithuanian folk songs. Song collections were provided by book smugglers, and church organists taught basic music literacy and organized choruses. Records of searches by Russian authorities reveal that folk song collections, music notebooks, music manuscripts and hymnals were among the confiscated materials found at the secret school sites.
Schooling in Lithuania Minor In discussing the cultural history of Lithuania, it is important to mention an area called Lithuania Minor (Prussia; Kleinlittaw in German) that includes parts of present-day Poland, the Kaliningrad exclave of Russia and south-western Lithuania. Although the Old Prussian language was extinct by the eighteenth century and most inhabitants were assimilated by Germans, the area remained an important bastion of Lithuanian culture until the twentieth century. Of 1,700 parish schools in operation during the eighteenth century, only 400 were German; instruction was carried out in Lithuanian or Polish in the remaining schools (Karclauskiene et al. 1983: 168). Compulsory Lutheran schooling was introduced in Prussia in 1736 and gained a foothold by the end of the eighteenth century. The curricula always included singing instruction. In 1746 three hours of singing per week were required throughout the Kingdom of Prussia (Jareckaite and Rimkute-Jankuviene 2010). In 1809 Wilhelm von Humboldt, the Prussian Minister of Culture, set forth his reform ideas in a plan for the schools of Prussia
Lithuania: The continuous assertion of national identity 85
and Lithuania (Konigsberger und Utauischer Schu/p/an) that helped bring the ideas of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi to Lithuania.' A teacher education seminary operated in Lithuania Minor from 1811 to1826 future teacher was taught to sing and play the violin. Students were also given instruction in organ, piano and music theory. Protestant activists who were maligned in Lithuania Major often relocated to Lithuania Minor, where principles of music education were strongly influenced by Martin Luther and Jan Amos Kornensky (Comenius). The first book in the Lithuanian language - Martynas Mazvydas' Protestant Catechism - was published here in 1547 (Ford1971),and the time-honoured Lithuanian tradition of collecting folk songs had its roots here. The first known documen- tation of a Lithuanian folk song was in 1634 and Liudvikas Reza published the first collection of Lithuanian folk songs in1825,providing a model for other collectors who often did so for reasons of national identity (Ramoskaite2000). The Duchy of Prussia's capital of Karaliaucius or Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad) became a centre of learning and printing. During the Lithuanian press ban Lithuanian books including song collections and hymnals in the Latin alphabet were published in Lithuania Minor and smuggled to Lithuania proper for use in the secret schools.
A new education system for a newly independent state: 1918-
Lithuanians lived under the rule of the Russian Empire until1918. In 1904 the press ban was repealed, Lithuanian schools started to open and an intense period of national revival paved the way for the re-establishment of an independent Lithuanian state in 1918 task of creating an educational system based on national culture was taken on immediately. The four-year primary school curriculum comprised eleven subjects, including singing, which was allocated two lessons per week. The programme included what was probably the first attempt to formulate the aim of music education: to like and to feel music, to listen consciously and understand it (Petrauskaite2009). Folk music was the basis of instruction through which children learned to sing with good intonation, to read notation in a one octave range and to independently write down a single-voiced melody. Upon completing the primary programme children were to 'clearly understand what they have learned; forever retain the songs learned in school in memory, and to be able to continue learning the science of music in the next tier of schooling' (quoted in Petrauskaite2009: 272). Composer and musicologist Juozas Zilevicius(1891-1985) became the head of the Department of the Arts at the Ministry of Education in1920,and today is acknowl- edged as the father of Lithuanian music education. Having surveyed the state of affairs in schools, he stated in1920: 'Generally speaking, you cannot say that singing and the science of music does not exist in schools, but on the other hand, you cannot say that it does. So what have we here? None other than happenstance teaching' (quoted in Petrauskaite2009: 272-3). Having studied German, Czech, French, English and
Lithuania: The continuous assertion of national identity 87
were purchased, skuduciiai and kankles were used in primary grades and choral studies became mandatory in the upper grades. Schools compiled collections of recordings, and class teaching was supplemented by radio concerts. Textbooks for middle-school students were published between 1938 and 1940. The reformed programme yielded widely varying results. Schools that had qualified music teachers did not find implementation difficult. However, the didactic and musical skills of many teachers were inadequate. The shortage of good music teachers was probably the main roadblock to implementing a curriculum that was not limited to the singing of simple songs. Ninety per cent of school music teachers were church organists, and 1923-4 data shows that one-third of Lithuanian schools did not have music teachers (Petrauskaite 2009). As late as 1938 there was a shortage of 150 music teachers in Lithuania. The situation was particularly critical in the primary grades where music was taught by classroom generalists. In many cases, music was ignored; pupils could not read music or even sing folk songs. During the 1920s teacher education programmes did not require the demonstration of any musical skills on entry, and the teacher education curriculum provided only one singing lesson and two lessons in music per week during the one-year course required to become a primary-level teacher upon completion of the eleventh grade. In later years the duration of primary-level teacher education was extended to three or four years (Iarnulaitiene 1999). Eventually the Klaipeda music school became an important institution for educating music teachers for the upper grades. Zilevicius again devoted himself to alleviating problems of teacher competence by teaching in Klaipeda, writing articles and books on teaching methods, and by organizing summer in-service courses for music teachers. After considerable discussion, it was decided that the Kaunas Conservatory - the premier school for training musicians in the country - should begin preparing music teachers in order for the overall standard of the teaching profession to improve. Unfortunately, the Second World War disrupted these plans.
Under the Soviet system: 1940- Education in context During the Second World War, Lithuania was occupied in turn by Germans and the Soviets. As a consequence of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Lithuania, together with several other countries, was relegated to the Soviets by a secret protocol of the Pact. The annexation terminated Lithuania's statehood, and with the entrance of Soviet troops to the country a systematic decon- struction of all areas of life commenced. The Sovietization of education, as well as political, social, economic, cultural and spiritual life, was rapid and about 300, Lithuanians (from a national population of three million) were deported to Siberian labour camps and gulags as they were perceived to be antagonistic to the new Communist
88 The Origins and Foundations of Music Education
Muzika R. ligaicio' Zodfiai A. Drilingos
AS SPALlUKAS
####### As labai dziaugiuosi,
Kad esu spollukos, Kad esu mazytis Lenino oniikos,
Kad rousvo zvaigzdele Kaip liepsno plevena, Prisegta tvirciousioi Ant kruttnes mono.
Virs plocios Tevynes, Virs louku ir sodu Po nasi zvaigzdele Sviecia, keliq rodo.
Su tokiorn zvaigzdelem, Karo audrai uziant, Ejo komjaunuoliai
####### Kozkodo i musi·
Po nasi zvoiqfdele Ir ant Krernlious bokst4,- Vises zemes zmones Pamatyt jq iroksto,
Ir uztai dziouqiuosi, Kad esu spaliukas, Kad esu mazy tis Lenino oniikos.
Figure 6 Soviet-era school song 'As Spaliukas' ('I'm a Little Octobrist'), music by Rimvydas Zigaitis, words by Antanas Drilinga. An excerpt from a first-grade textbook, Muzika 1 ©Zenonas Marcinkevicius (1974), Muzika I, Kaunas: Sviesa, p. 19; reproduced with permission of the publisher, Sviesa. The 'Little Octobrist' organization for children aged7-9was the first step to becoming a 'Pioneer', then a member of the 'Komsomol', which was the usual prerequisite for membership of the Communist Party. A summary of the text: 'I'm so happy to be a Little Octobrist, to be a little grandson of Lenin. The red star is firmly fastened to my chest. In times of war the Komsomol went to battle with such stars. All of mankind yearns to see a similar star that sits atop the Kremlin towers.'
90 The Origins and Foundations of Music Education
The 'Khrushchev thaw'
The political thaw in the early 1960s brought pronounced changes. An attempt to generate a Soviet 'folk culture' allowed for the recognition of unique folk music cultures from the republics that made up the Soviet Union. However, authentic versions of folklore were viewed sceptically and not encouraged. Instead, folk music was to be performed as a stage art in often ostentatiously harmonized and elaborately arranged renditions with 'augmented' folk instrument orchestras that were never a part of the folk tradition. Song and dance ensembles were created to perform these works that often made the folk music of Lithuania sound much like the music of other Soviet republics. Yet throughout the Soviet period Lithuanian ethnic ensembles that fostered authentic performance of folklore held their own - both within and outside of school settings - despite instances of both indirect and outright harassment by the authorities. In a formal sense, the conditions for music education during the Soviet period were satisfactory. Immediately following the Second World War, after-school music schools were established in every district centre of Lithuania. In the mid-1980s there were more than seventy such schools in Lithuania with a total enrolment of about 10, students. Music instruction was mandatory in every grade of compulsory schooling, music textbooks were published and teachers were being prepared in institutes of higher education. Choirs, orchestras and other ensembles that operated in schools and informal educational settings received ample funding. After-school musical activities thrived, especially choral ensembles. Song festivals for both adults and school-age children included tens of thousands of performers from across the country, continuing the tradition that was begun in 1924. Yet these were only the external characteristics. The main feature of the Soviet system continued to be an ideological curriculum content to prepare politically mindful builders of Communist society (Stasaitis 2009). Change and innovation came slowly to music education. Textbooks that were written in the 1950s were used in the secondary grades until 1974. The main focus was on Lithuanian folksongs, and exercises were based on the melodic and rhythmic materials of folk literature. Concern was expressed that the main emphasis of music education was on theory and music literacy at the expense of aesthetic experience, appreciation, and aural and oral development. The curriculum was so crowded that conscientious teachers were forced into broad, generalized treatments of the subject matter. Comprehensive musicianship was a foreign concept. Music listening and instrumental performance in the general music class were minor activities (Gaidarnaviciene and Marcirikevicius 1968).
Changes in the 1970s The structure of schools was changed in 1966 throughout the Soviet Union and music education was reformed as well. New textbooks were published for the upper grades, in addition to teacher manuals and other instructional materials. Music education was supported by the national recording studio and Lithuanian television, which aired
Lithuania: The continuous assertion of national identity 91
programmes on music teaching methods as well as complete music lessons. Teachers became actively involved in nationwide seminars, and working groups of music teachers met in cities and district centres. The tradition of conducting demonstration lessons for colleagues was initiated. The first music 'magnet schools' (specialist schools), where music classes took place four or five times per week, were also established at this time. The music teaching systems of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Zoltan Kodaly and Carl Orff began to make inroads. Dalcrozian ideas were used for teaching notation, while Kodaly's views of music education based on singing and folk music were analogous to Lithuanian traditions. Unfortunately, the Kodaly system of relative solmization did not take hold. At one time, pupils were expected to learn three different systems. Letter names were used for instrumental performance since metallophones and skuduCiai were labelled in letter names. The absolute fixed-doh system used in pre-war music instruction and compa- rable to practices in nineteenth century and early twentieth century France, Germany and Russia continued to be used in schools. For some time a third system used throughout the Soviet Union, called the 'jo-Ie' relative system, was taught in Grades 1 to 4 (Daugirdas 1978; Visockiene 1983). Eventually, pressure came from instrumental music school teachers and those in higher education to abandon the relative system and to this day very few schools or choruses teach relative solmization. The Orff system of active music-making, acting, movement and literary connections received the most attention in relation to other international methods. Although travel from the Soviet Union was severely restricted and study abroad was almost non-existent, Lithuanian educators resourcefully picked up elements of the system from foreign colleagues who supplied publications, and from short foreign visits. Methods books that encouraged 'musicing' and musical creativity were very popular among teachers. Krakauskaite's (1965, 1967) textbooks in the 1970s and 1980s for the primary grades included rhythmics, instrumental music, chanting and creative activities. In the late 1970s amateur craftsmen produced metallophones for use in the primary grades, but their quality was substandard and a far cry from the Orff instrumentarium. Nevertheless, they served their purpose in promoting active music-making in the classroom. Despite the fact that Lithuanian music teachers could not form a deeper and more meaningful understanding of international music education methods because of a lack of infor- mation and the censure of Western ideas, even fragmentary applications did much to revive Lithuanian music education.
The creation of a Lithuanian music education system
The political 'thaw' of the 1960s and 1970s allowed for the introduction of a Lithuanian music education curriculum that differed from the other Soviet republics. The new general music curriculum stressed comprehensive musicianship through singing, listening, solfege, rhythmic exercises and performance on classroom instruments (especially on Lithuanian panpipes, skudueial), The author of the new curriculum, Eduardas Baleytis, describes the goal of general music education:
Lithuania: The continuous assertion of national identity 93
given scant attention, yet the system was in glowing contrast to the music lessons of theory and singing that existed up to that time. An alternative to the ideas of Western educators was intensively promoted by the Russian composer and educator Dimitri Kabalevsky (Dimentman 1983; Becker, Goldin and Leibman 1993; Kabalevsky 1993). The main components of the Kabalevsky system were listening to masterpieces of music and discussions, since the aim was to prepare a music listener, not a performer. It was suggested that only more talented students should be encouraged toward performance (Kievisas 1980), and proponents of the Kabalevsky system criticized the Orff and Kodaly methods for limiting the curriculum to music that students were able perform (Marcinkevi6ius 1979). Pupils in the first grade were intro- duced to the lyric song, the dance and the march, which Kabalevsky considered the basis of all musical forms. He called these forms the three whales of music, referring to an ancient Russian legend that says the earth rests on the backs of three whales (a metaphor that would be repeatedly lampooned by critics). Most respected musicians in Lithuania actively opposed the Kabalevsky system, and due to their hard-fought efforts the system never gained a foothold in Lithuania. Bal6ytis (1984) continued to defend his system of comprehensive musicianship and opposed lesson material being subjugated to the understanding of world classics at the expense of other elements and areas of music, especially folk songs. Among the leading musical figures who joined in rejecting the Kabalevsky system were the director of the famed AZuoliukas boys' choir, Vytautas Miskinis, and the musicologist Vytautas Landsbergis (1980), who later became the first leader of independent Lithuania in 1990.
The restoration of independence - music education 1990- Lithuania restored its sovereignty with the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania on 11 March 1990. The reform of the education system was begun in the pre-dawn of independence when Dr Meile Luksiene brought together a broad circle of educators, intellectuals, artists and scientists to create the Concept of National Education (1988) and other important documents during the early days of glasnost. Their work has encoded the principles of Lithuanian education that continue from one strategic document to the next until the present day: a caring respect for the unconditional worth of the individual, democratic values, commitment to Lithuanian culture and nationhood (see sample song in Figure62).and an openness to change (Luksiene 2014: 21). First and foremost, the reformers foresaw that changes were needed in the entrenched mind-sets of the education community. Schools became less centralized, different types of schools were allowed to exist and teachers faced greater expectations. The amount of required material was reduced to allow teachers space to work creatively with students and to provide opportunities for self-directed learning and practical application of
94 The Origins and Foundations of Music Education
Sulapojo azuolas ...
*AS PASEJAU l\ZUOLl*
As pasejau azuola, Zalioj girioj azuola. Tegyvuoja, tegyvuoja Lietuva Kaip tas zalias azuolas.
Ir isdygo azuolas, Zalioj girioj ~zuolas. Tegyvuoja, tegyvuoja Liet Kaip tas zalias azuolas.
Ir uzaugo azuolas ...
Pilnas giliu ~zuolas ...
Dangu remia azuolas.
Sventas medis azuolas ...
## -~~:~
**Figure 6** Lithuanian folk song'ASpasejau qZuOlq' ('I planted an oak tree'). an excerpt from a second
grade textbook, _Muzika_ 2:©Eirimas Velicka (1995), _Muzika_ 2, Kaunas: Sviesa, p. 3; reproduced with
permission of the publisher, Sviesa. Traditional culture is again used to foster national identity. A summary
of the text: 'I planted a sacred oak tree in the green forest. May Lithuania thrive like that green oak. The
oak tree grew, it yielded acorns, it shored up the heavens. The oak is a sacred tree.'
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