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EJ1329186 - lecture notes
BS Education (BSE 101)
Tarlac State University
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Perceived Discrimination and Students’ Behavioural Changes: The Role of Cultural Background and Societal Influence
Somasundar M Maharaj Vinayak Global University, Amer, Dhand, Jaipur
Abstract
Discrimination among students in educational institutes is one of the key reasons for their behavioural changes. Research has increasingly recognized the discriminating behaviour of teachers, but the impact of perceived discrimination by teachers on students’ behavioural changes has not been investigated enough. Applying a theoretical model based on Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), the present study aimed to investigate the manner in which students’ behavioural changes were determined by their teachers’ perceived discrimination, after knowing family background and how this relationship was moderated by societal influence and cultural background. A sample survey of 215 class 8 to class 10 students studying in rural and urban schools located in Krishnagiri district in Tamil Nadu, India was administered through questionnaires and partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to evaluate the gathered data. Overall, perceived teacher discrimination of students based on their caste, creed, and financial background significantly influenced students behaviour. The association between students’ behavioural changes and perceived discrimination was significantly influenced by cultural background. However, societal influence did not significantly change the effect of perceived students’ discrimination on their behavioural changes.
Keywords: behavioural changes, cultural background, family background, perceived discrimination, students’ societal influence
discrimination on students’ behavioural changes are needed. The present study is unique because it explores students’ behavioural changes.
Thus, to fill the relevant research gaps, the present study aimed to explore the effect of perceived discrimination by teachers on behavioural changes among students after controlling for family background. Besides, the study aimed to assess whether cultural background and societal influence controlled the association between students’ behavioural changes and perceived discrimination. Identification and examination of elements that control the consequences of teachers’ perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural changes can support the formulation of relevant precautionary measures. Considering the past studies on sensitivity to discrimination (Wildhagen, 2011; Slobodin et al., 2021), this study anticipated a wider impact of perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural changes in the presence of moderators.
Theoretical Underpinnings Utilizing integrated frameworks that highlight the mechanisms and cause and effect relationship, is vital for academic performance. This is specifically applicable when student outcomes are considered because of risk factors based on individual and environmental characteristics. Hence, this study turns to the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST) (Spencer, 1995), which posits the role of contextual influence (social, cultural and family) on the development of young people (Spencer 1999). In the context of the PVEST framework, the significance of examining risk factors (e., caste-based discrimination) and how they have been linked to negative outcomes has been highlighted (Spencer et al., 2003). The effect of perceived school-based discrimination of students by teachers is examined in this study and it is theorized as total stress involvement in the PVEST framework. Such stress engagement might be associated with negative outcomes for youth in academic settings. Then again, perceived caste-based discrimination of youth might be linked to more adaptive outcomes by the protective element of culture-family socialization.
Discrimination as a risk factor for behavioural outcomes. The differential treatment due to race, religion, caste, creed and economic backgrounds is termed discrimination (Smart Richman and Leary, 2009). Unfortunately, in the present scenario, educational institutions have become one of the common spaces for all kinds of student discrimination. Caste and economic backgrounds are listed as the main bases of discrimination in the Indian education system (Desai and Kulkarni, 2008). Discrimination based on caste, creed and economic backgrounds in Indian educational institutions has been prevalent for decades. The physical elimination and biased attitude of teachers towards the predicament of ostracized pupils is forcing several learners to behave negatively and despite functional preventive interventions, little is being done by administrations to address the issue (Sitlhou, 2017). Any such injustice taking place in educational institutions affects the academic outcomes, psychological health, and school engagement of the students.
A negative teacher-student relationship, including a perceived bias, predicts poorer behavioural functioning in adolescents (Hamre and Pianta, 2001). Jain and Narayan (2011) highlighted the discrimination faced by the students based on their religious beliefs. Ramachandran and Naorem, (2013) pointed out that the students belonging to lower caste were not permitted to seat adjacent to an upper caste student. Further, the biases faced by backward caste students were demonstrated by Kurian (2015). Additionally, Wenz and Hoenig (2020) also illustrated the discrimination against the students. However, all these studies failed to assess the impacts on student outcomes. Few studies like Ingul et al. (2012) reported that the psychological
adjustment due to bias led to negative perceptions about the school that in turn resulted in reduced students’ interactive behaviour. Rueger and Jenkins (2014) highlighted diminished physical and mental health as a result of discrimination among students. Thus, persistent discrimination based on caste, creed and economic background ultimately results in negative behavioural outcomes, even in the education sector (Ali et al., 2019). The below-mentioned hypothesis is formulated based on the discussion:
H1: There is a significant impact of perceived discrimination of students by teachers based on caste, creed and economic backgrounds on students’ behavioural changes
Role of family background, cultural background and societal factors. Based on the academic resilience outlook, moderating the relationship is one of the individual and environmental characteristics that affect the association between outcomes and risk factors (García-Izquierdo et al., 2018). Students’ overall success and academic performance is determined by their family background, which is largely expressed as the socioeconomic status (Adeyemo and Kuyoro, 2013). Besides, a substantial association between the prevalence of behavioural problems in students and their family background in terms of parents or caretakers being alcoholic or absent is evident in literature (Jogdand and Naik, 2014). Discrimination among students is reportedly predicted by a low socio-economic status (Jackson et al., 2012). Previous studies have examined family background as an individual variable that may modify student outcomes (Lee et al., 2015). Students belonging to marginalized families are more likely to experience behavioural changes caused by perceived discrimination by teachers (OECD, 2017).
Researchers have emphasized that cultural background has theoretical groundwork in the social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), theorizing that the risk outcome of perceived discrimination may be mitigated for individuals who identify with their cultural background (Phinney, 2003). However, in the context of educational institutions, previous studies also suggest that identification with a cultural background may result in negative student outcomes due to increased awareness of negative labels and little importance of positive societal influence on the cultural background (Oyserman, 2008; Wildhagen, 2011). For instance, in a longitudinal study by Cheng and Klugman (2010), students possessing a minority cultural background had lower connectedness to schools. Banerjee et al. (2018) highlighted the prevalence of discrimination by teachers based on students’ cultural background, which buffered the influence of perceived discrimination on students’ learning outcomes. Although perceived discrimination may exist in multiple contexts, all forms represent different degrees of risks to various types of social identity needs, which relate to changes in behavioural outcomes (Verkuyten et al., 2019). Consistent with the role of these factors in existing literature, this study offers the following hypothesis.
H2: Cultural background and societal influence moderates the effect of perceived discrimination by teachers on students’ behavioural changes
The conceptual framework proposed here builds on the perceived discrimination of students that has been supported by theoretical perspectives to act as a direct antecedent of students’ behavioural changes when controlling for family background. The alternative framework builds on the idea that cultural background and societal influence will moderate the association between students’ behavioural changes and their perceived discrimination. These propositions are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A three-step process was followed in which R 2 and sizes of effects for “perceived teachers’ discrimination” on “students’ behavioural changes” were evaluated. First, the model was run without the moderators (cultural background and societal influence); secondly, the direct effects of “cultural background” and “societal influence” on students’ behavioural changes were measured; and thirdly, “cultural background” and “societal influence” were incorporated and moderator effect was assessed. Following guidelines from Streukens and Leroi-Werelds (2016) for estimating the statistical significance of path estimates using PLS- SEM, bootstrapping technique was executed using 10,000 sub-samples to increase the degree of precision. SmartPLS and IBM SPSS were employed to analyze the data and generate the results.
Results
Analysis of the Measurement Model The measurement model was assessed by the study to ensure relevant reliability, composite reliability, and construct validity of the scales used. The various items of latent variables were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess overall fitness of the measurement model. The result of the factor analysis of the study constructs is illustrated in Table 1. Average variance extracted (AVE) values and factor loading values were found greater than 0, thereby ensuring convergent validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Composite reliability (CR) of the variables was above the threshold of 0 and it ranged between 0 and 0 (Hair et al., 2017). It can be inferred that constructs had high internal consistency for items associated with each variable. The remaining constructs were eliminated as the AVE values were less than 0.
Table 1 Reliability and Validity Outcomes
Latent constructs Cronbach's Alpha
Factor loading CR AVE Perceived teachers’ discrimination 0 0 0.
DS1 Teachers don’t answer my questions in the class
DS3 Teachers make disrespectful comments towards me in the class because of my caste
DS8 I feel that teachers always pay attention to students of higher caste
Cultural background 0 0 0. CF1 I have some beliefs that affect my interaction with students of other caste
CF3 The curriculum provided by my school is based on different cultural backgrounds
Societal influence 0 0 0. SF3 I am disciplined at school because I am disciplined at home
SF4 I interact with students of different caste 0. SF5 The society has been the primary influence in my life regarding how I feel about people of other caste
Students’ behavioural changes 0 0 0. BCS1 I am not interested in listening to lectures in the class
BCS2 I like to talk to my friends during the class 0. BCS5 I do not submit class assignments 0. Note: CR=composite reliability; AVE=average variance extracted
A test of discriminant validity was assessed for all construct variables in the model. The analysis presented in Table 2 shows that the AVE square root values of each construct were higher than the multiple correlation values for the respective constructs, which demonstrated the discriminant validity of all construct variables in the model (Hair et al., 2017).
Table 2 Discriminant Validity Indicators
Construct BCS CB DS SF Behavioural changes (BCS) 0. Cultural background (CB) 0 0. Perceived teachers’ discrimination (DS) 0 0 0. Societal influence (SF) 0 0 0 0.
The Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) criterion was also used to assess discriminant validity. The analysis presented in Table 3 demonstrates that the HTMT values were below 0, thereby confirming the absence of any issues on discriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Thus, the variables were distinctly different from each other. Therefore, discriminant validity was achieved.
Table 5 Bootstrapping Direct Effects at 95% Confidence Intervals (CIs)
Sample T Statistics
P β Standard Deviation Values (STDEV) Cultural background -> Behavioural changes 0 0 3 0. Family background -> Behavioural changes 0 0 2 0. Societal influence -> Behavioural changes 0 0 7 0.
Figure 2 SEM Model for the Study
Moderating Effects The role of cultural background and societal influence as moderators between perceived discrimination of students was their behavioural changes were tested (Table 6). An effect size of predictors in each case was assessed following Cohen’s f 2 criteria. The results demonstrate that the second case and third case in which direct and the moderating (cultural background) interaction effects were created, reported a higher effect size in comparison to other scenarios. The results indicated an f 2 value of 0 reflecting a small effect size (Cohen, 1988); thereby partially confirming hypothesis H2.
Table 6 Moderation Effects
State of model testing Effect size Model without cultural background 0. Model without societal influence 0. Model with cultural background as a direct effect 0. Model with societal influence as a direct effect 0. Model with cultural background as a moderator 0. Model with societal influence as a moderator 0.
Discussion
While research has consistently focused on discrimination based on caste and creed, less is known about specific discrimination sources in different settings, including institutional contexts. The present study focused specifically on perceived teacher discrimination. The present research analysed the effects of teachers’ perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural changes when controlling for family background. Besides, this study examined whether cultural background and societal influence moderated the effects of school-based discrimination on students’ behavioural changes. This study focused on the Indian sample to understand how perceived teacher discrimination based on caste, creed and financial background of students may be associated with their behavioural changes.
In the present study, specifically, the empirical evidence that perceived discrimination by teachers (0) significantly affects students’ behavioural changes suggests that higher discrimination strengthens behavioural changes in students. This finding is indicative of declining in students’ interest to listen in the classes as a result of discrimination. Alfaro et al. (2009) proposed similar arguments by stating that students who suffered discrimination by teachers showed little interest in their studies, curiosity and perseverance. Additionally, discrimination also significantly affects students’ interest to obey rules in the classroom. Smalls et al. (2007) established that discriminated students possibly exhibit truant behaviour at school. Discriminating behaviour is intolerable, even among educated professionals, and adversely affects student outcomes (Borrazzo, 2005; Haider and Hussain, 2014). Here, this finding contributes to the previous studies which reported that perceived discrimination by teachers is a basic determinant of behavioural changes in students (Huynh and Fuligni 2010; Jain and Narayan, 2011; Dupper et al., 2015). The exclusion and discrimination based on caste were also highlighted by Dostie and Jayaraman (2006). This kind of discrimination was also pointed out by Ramachandran and Naorem (2013) who highlighted segregated seating arrangements of backward and forward caste students in a classroom as an example of perceived teacher discrimination. Moreover, Kumar (2016) claimed that the humiliation and discrimination in schools based on the caste of the students was a reality in the Indian education system. Additionally, girls in the backward caste were considered as less fit to study (Kurian, 2015). Murray-Harvey and Slee (2007) and Stephan and Stephan (2013) argued that factors that profoundly affect students’ psychological behaviour and learning originate from the discriminating attitude of teachers. However, the present finding is different from the findings by Bibi and Karim (2015) and Ali et al. (2019) where it was observed that students’ learning outcomes and psychology were not influenced by teachers’ perceived discrimination.
Moreover, regarding perceived teacher discrimination, this study empirically established that the association between students’ behavioural outcomes and perceived discrimination was controlled by cultural background in a significant, but negative manner. This finding established that the effects of teachers’ perceived discrimination on students’ behaviour would be mitigated by cultural background. This outcome is consistent with Banerjee et al. (2018), who posited that the influence of perceived discrimination on academic performances of students was weakened by cultural socialization. The cultural background has been associated with better performance of school students. Assari and Caldwell (2018) reported that cultural socialization diminished the risk for greater behavioural changes in students due to experiencing discrimination in the classroom by teachers. The authors argued that individual and environmental intersection is required to comprehend the role of discrimination on students’ behavioural changes (Chavous et al., 2008). Theoretical perspectives on socialization might facilitate our understanding of why cultural background may matter in the influences of
terms of termination, suspension, or demotion should be effective to regulate these sources. Several interventions should be implemented by school authorities to alleviate perceived teacher discrimination. Schools should prioritize a diverse workforce of teachers. Finally, training programs should be conducted to educate teachers to mitigate blunt reactions and better handle discriminating attitudes. Repeated mistreatment is considered to emotionally affect students (Baldwin and Baldwin, 1986). Although eliminating negative interactions between teachers and students seems unrealistic, bias in teachers’ approach towards students could be mitigated.
Limitations and Future Research Directives The present study emphasises on school-based students’ perception of teacher discrimination and their views on their behavioural changes. Future research should consider the perceptions of teachers and parents to provide in-depth insights for understanding the impact of school-based perceived discrimination on students’ behavioural outcomes and decrease the probability of bias in self-perceived response. In addition, the present study did not control for organizational and personal factors that could be a reason for perceived teacher discrimination. Future studies may emphasize additional factors, like institutional strategies, which tend to control the association between students’ behavioural changes and teachers’ perceived discrimination. This, in turn, would enable to comprehend framing institutional policies effective in regulating teachers’ behaviour and attitude. Moreover, the cross-sectional aspect restricts the generalizability of findings as it provides an understanding of what is currently happening. Therefore, longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the relationship between perceived teacher discrimination based on caste, creed and financial background and students’ behavioural changes. Efforts must be made to understand how such a relationship is buffered by cultural-societal intersection and family background through different phases of the school level. A longitudinal study design on perceived discrimination might aid in understanding the nature and influence of the moderating factors.
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Corresponding author: Somasundar M Email: somasundar@gmail
EJ1329186 - lecture notes
Course: BS Education (BSE 101)
University: Tarlac State University
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