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I-O PSY Lecture Notes
Industrial Psychology
University of San Carlos
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INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
- a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace
- goal is to increase the productivity and well-being of employees.
**Two Approaches in I/O Psychology
- Industrial Approach** – focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through training.
2. Organizational Approach – creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well, give them the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life environment.
**Major Fields of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
- Personnel Psychology**
- field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees.
- study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance
- choose existing tests or create new ones that can be used to select and promote employees which are then constantly evaluated to ensure that they are both fair and valid
- analyze jobs to obtain a complete picture of what each employee does, often assigning monetary values to each position
- determines complete job descriptions and constructs performance-appraisal instruments to evaluate employee performance
- examine various methods that can be used to train and develop employees
- usually work in a training department of an organization and are involved in such activities as identifying the organization’s training needs, developing training programs, and evaluating training success
2. Organizational Psychology
field of study that investigates the behavior of employees within the context of an organization.
concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization
often conduct surveys of employee attitudes to get ideas about what employees believe are an organization’s strengths and weaknesses
serves the role of a consultant, thus makes recommendations on ways problem areas can be improved (ex. low job satisfaction might be improved by allowing employees to participate in making certain company decisions, and poor communication might be improved by implementing an employee suggestion system)
3. Human Factors/Ergonomics
- field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines.
- concentrate on workplace design, human machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress
- frequently work with engineers (such as Industrial Engineers) and other technical professionals to make the workplace safer and more efficient
- includes activities such as designing the optimal way to draw a map, designing the most comfortable chair, and investigating the optimal work schedule
Ψ There are different areas/settings as to which you can apply I/O Psychology that requires Human Resource Management (HRM) such as in educational setting, organizational/business setting, clinical setting, and etc...
Brief History of I/O Psychology
In 1903, Walter Dill Scott wrote “The Theory of Advertising” , in which psychology was first applied to business. In 1911, he published Increasing Human Efficiency in Business.
1913 , Hugo Munsterberg publishes Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (German version published in 1910).
The term “industrial psychology” was seldom used prior to World War I. Instead, the common terms for the field were “economic psychology,” “business psychology,” and “employment psychology” (Koppes & Pickren, 2007).
1917 , Journal of Applied Psychology first published
1918 , World War I provides I/O psychologists with the first opportunity for large-scale employee testing and selection. (Army Alpha, for literate & Army Beta, for those who can’t read)
John Watson , who is better known as a pioneer in behaviorism, served as a major in the U. Army in World War I and developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots.
Henry Gantt , were responsible for increasing the efficiency with which cargo ships were built, repaired, and loaded
Thomas A. Edison created a 150-item knowledge test that he administered to over 900 applicants. Only 5% of the applicants passed.
Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth , one of the pioneer scientists to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers.
1921 , First Ph. in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech
1932 , First I/O text written by Morris Viteles
1933 , Hawthorne studies were published, conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the Chicago area, demonstrated that the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees played a tremendous role in employee behavior. It was initially designed to investigate such issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee performance. Employees changed their behavior and became more productive because they were being studied and received attention from their managers ( Hawthorne effect .)
1937 , American Association for Applied Psychology established
1945 , Society for Industrial and Business Psychology established as Division 14 of APA with 130 members 1951, Marion Bills elected as first woman president of Division 14
1960 , Division 14 renamed as Society for Industrial Psychology , membership exceeds 700
1963 , Equal Pay Act passed
1964 , Civil Rights Act passed. First issue of The Industrial- Organizational Psychologist (TIP) published
1970 , Division 14 membership exceeds 1,
1971 , B. Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and Dignity
1980 , Division 14 membership exceeds 1,
1982 , Division 14 renamed Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP)
1986 , Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) holds first annual national conference separate from APA meeting
1989 , Supreme Court sets conservative trend and becomes more “employer friendly”
1990 , Americans with Disabilities Act passed. SIOP membership exceeds 2,
1991 , Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to overcome 1989 conservative Supreme Court decisions
1997 , SIOP celebrates golden anniversary at its annual conference in St. Louis
2000 , SIOP membership exceeds 3,
2005 , Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) become more aggressive in fighting systemic discrimination
2008 , The journal Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice begins publication as an official journal of SIOP
2009 , Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act and Americans with Disabilities Act Amendment Act (ADAAA) passed
2010 , SIOP membership exceeds 8,000; SIOP members narrowly vote to keep the name Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology rather than change the name to the Society for Organizational Psychology
2013 , OFCCP issues new regulations affecting the hiring of military veterans and individuals with disabilities
2014 , SIOP membership exceeds 8,
CHAPTER 2: JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Job Analysis
- the process of gathering and analyzing information about the work an employee performs, the conditions under which the work is performed, and the worker characteristics needed to perform the work under the identified conditions.
- is the process of determining the work activities and requirements
- job analysis and job descriptions serve as the basis for many HR activities, including employee selection, evaluation, training, and work design.
- goal is to identify the tasks performed in a job, the conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the knowledge, skills, attitudes, other factors (KSAOs) needed to perform the tasks under the conditions identified
Job Description
- is the written result of the job analysis
- should contain the following eight sections: job title, brief summary, work activities, tools and equipment used, work context, performance standards, compensation information, and personal requirements.
**Methods Used in Conducting a Job Analysis
- Observation**
- the analyst observes and documents all the activities performed by current job holders while they work
- useful for repetitive jobs and in conjunction with other methods of job analysis or as a way to verify information
2. Interview
- analyst conducts structured interviews with job holders and supervisors using a series of job-related questions to identify the tasks and responsibilities of a job
- a standardized interview form is used often to record information
- both the employee and the employees supervisor must be interviewed to obtain complete details
- group or panel interviews are used
- a team of subject matter experts (SME) who have varying insights about a group of jobs can be assembled to provide job analysis information as well
3. Questionnaire
widely used method of gathering data about jobs
offer the major advantage of efficiency in effectiveness as a large number of jobs can be collected inexpensively in an over a relatively short period of time
using the same questionnaire for all position provides standard types of data across jobs
assumes that employees can accurately analyze and communicate information about their own job
Steps in Conducting a Job Analysis Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed
- identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed. Gathering Existing Information. Interviewing Subject Matter Experts (people who are knowledgeable about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and upper-level management) Observing Incumbents. (the job analyst observes incumbents performing their jobs in the work setting) Job Participation.
Step 2: Write Task Statements
- will be used in the task inventory and included in the job description.
- a properly written task statement must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is done). Often, task statements will also include such components as where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is done.
Step 3: Rate Task Statements
- conduct a task analysis — using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being performed.
Task analysis – the process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained.
Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs
- identify the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks. Knowledge – is a body of information needed to perform a task. Skill – is the proficiency to perform a learned task. Ability – is a basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring knowledge, or developing a skill. Other characteristics – include such personal factors as personality, willingness, interest, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience.
Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs
will be used to select new employees and include such methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests,
is a feeling of dissatisfaction, expressed or suppressed, valid or not, concerning a matter or situation relating to work
Grievance
- any dissatisfaction, complaint, irritation, or misunderstanding
- it arises from his job or his relationship with his employer, any violation of the CBA or Labor Code that he thinks or feels he is wronged or treated unfairly
**Settling Disputes
- Mediation**
- is a process of negotiation in which the disputing parties come together to discuss their differences under the supervision of a mediator
- the mediator may be court-appointed or chosen jointly by the parties
2. Conciliation
- is similar to mediation but is more commonly used by government agencies or tribunals
- for example, industrial disputes involving employers and employees may often be referred to conciliation
3. Arbitration
- is quite similar to a court hearing
- the disputing parties are present, commonly accompanied by their lawyers, and the dispute is determined by an impartial arbitrator who may be court-appointed
- the benefit of using arbitration is that it is cheaper and the rules of arbitration are not as rigid as the rules of court.
Discrimination
- is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc.
Adverse Impact – is based on the 80% or 4/5ths rule
Unfairness – it occurs when minorities and non-minorities score differently on the predictor test yet perform similarly on the criterion. (ex. MCAT)
Differential Validity – occurs when there are significantly different criterion-related validity for different group on the same test. put more simply, differential validity means that the test is more valid for predicting the performance of one group than it is for predicting the performance of another. (ex. male vs. females)
Prejudice – is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group.
CHAPTER 4: EMPLOYEE SELECTION – RECRUITMENT AND
INTERVIEWING
Selection Process
- can be defined as the process of selection and shortlisting of the right candidates with the necessary qualifications and skill set to fill the vacancies in an organization
- the selection process varies from industry to industry, company to company and even among departments of the same company.
Importance of the Selection Process
- Proper selection and placement of employees lead to growth and development of the company. The company can similarly, only be as good as the capabilities of its employees.
- The hiring of talented and skilled employees results in the swift achievement of company goals.
- Industrial accidents will drastically reduce in numbers when the right technical staff is employed for the right jobs.
- When people get jobs they are good at, it creates a sense of satisfaction with them and thus their work efficiency and quality improves.
- People who are satisfied with their jobs often tend to have high morale and motivation to perform better
**Steps in the Recruiting Process
- Planning**
- is when a company settles on the number of employees they are looking to hire and the skill sets they require of these employees
- compare their needs to the expected number of qualified candidates in the labor market.
2. Recruitment
- takes place when the company tries to reach a pool of candidates through job postings, job referrals, advertisements, college campus recruitment, etc...
- candidates who respond to these measures then come in for interviews and other methods of assessment
- employers may check the background of prospective employees, as well as check references
3. Employee Selection
- is the process by which an employer evaluates information about the pool of applicants generated during the recruitment phase
- after assessing the candidates, the company decides which applicant will be offered the position.
Complete Process Cycle From Job Vacancy To Employee Evaluation
Hiring Selection Matrix – after recruitment and screening, qualified candidates are short-listed to finally select the most appropriate candidate for the job using previously identified competencies.
How Companies Hire Employees
- Job Applications
- Applicant Tracking Systems
- Applicant Talent Assessments
- Interview Process
- Interview Follow Up
- Applicant Drug Testing
- Background Checks
- Credit Checks
- Reference Checks
- Job Offers
- Hiring Paperwork
Ψ After careful selection and hiring, successful employees are invited for an orientation program. Topics often include: Safety The work environment The new job description Benefits and benefits eligibility The employee's new manager and coworkers Company culture (Links to an external site.) Company history The organization chart Anything else that is relevant for the new employee to working in the new company
CHAPTER 7: EVALUATING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
Employee Evaluation
- is the assessment and review of a worker’s job performance that is conducted either twice or once a year
- typically these assessments are done at year-end or on the employee's service anniversary
- many companies tie their annual raises to employee evaluations.
Performance Appraisals and Job Analysis Relationship
Job Analysis Performance Standards
Performance Appraisals Describe the work and personnel requirement of a particular job.
Translate job requirements into levels of acceptable or unacceptable performance
Describe the job relevant strengths and weaknesses of each individual.
Use of Performance Appraisals
- Promotions
- Confirmations
- Training and Development
- Compensation reviews
- Competency building
- Improve communication
- Evaluation of HR Programs
- Feedback & Grievances
4 Goals of Performance Appraisals
General Goals Specific Goals Developmental Use Individual needs Performance feedback Transfers and Placements
Strengths and Development needs Administrative Decisions / Uses
Salary Promotion Retention / Termination Recognition Lay offs Poor Performers identification
Organizational Maintenance
HR Planning Training Needs Organizational Goal achievements Goal Identification HR Systems Evaluation Reinforcement of organizational needs Documentation Validation Research For HR Decisions Legal Requirements
Methods of Performance Evaluation
- broadly all methods of appraisals can be divided into
two different categories:
a. Past Oriented Methods
1. Rating Scales
- rating scales consists of several numerical scales
representing job related performance criterions
such as dependability, initiative, output,
attendance, attitude etc. that ranges from
excellent to poor and the total numerical scores are
computed and final conclusions are derived
- advantages: adaptability, easy to use, low cost, every type of job can be evaluated, large number of employees covered, no formal training required.
- disadvantages: rater’s biases
2. Checklist - under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the form of Yes or No based questions is prepared - the rater only does the reporting or checking and HR department does the actual evaluation - advantages: economy, ease of administration, limited training required, standardization - disadvantages: raters biases, use of improper weighs by HR, does not allow rater to give relative ratings
3. Forced Choice Method - the series of statements arranged in the blocks of two or more are given and the rater indicates which statement is true or false
- t he rater is forced to make a choice. HR department does actual assessment
- advantages: absence of personal biases because of forced choice
- disadvantages: statements may be wrongly framed
4. Forced Distribution Method - here employees are clustered around a high point on a rating scale - rater is compelled to distribute the employees on all points on the scale - it is assumed that the performance is conformed to normal distribution - disadvantages: assumption of normal distribution, unrealistic, errors of central tendency
5. Critical Incidents Method
- is focused on certain critical behaviors of employee that makes all the difference in the performance
- supervisors as and when they occur record such incidents
- advantages: evaluations are based on actual job behaviors, ratings are supported by descriptions, feedback is easy, reduces recency biases, chances of subordinate improvement are high
- disadvantages: negative incidents can be prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close supervision; feedback may be too much and may appear to be punishment
6. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales:
- statements of effective and ineffective behaviors determine the points and are said to be behaviorally anchored
- the rater is supposed to say, which behavior describes the employee performance
- advantages: helps overcome rating errors
- disadvantages: suffers from distortions inherent in most rating techniques
7. Field Review Method
- is an appraisal done by someone outside employees’ own department usually from corporate or HR department
- advantages: useful for managerial level promotions, when comparable information is needed
- disadvantages: outsider is generally not familiar with employees work environment, Observation of actual behaviors not possible
- are useful to measure inter-personal skills, customer satisfaction and team building skills - however on the negative side, receiving feedback from multiple sources can be intimidating, threatening etc. - multiple raters may be less adept at providing balanced and objective feedback.
Peter Principle - the idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they reach the level at which they are not competent—in other words, their highest level of incompetence.
**Conducting a Performance Appraisal
- Design a legally valid performance review process**
- Patricia King, in her book, Performance Planning and Appraisal, states that the law requires that performance appraisals be: job-related and valid; based on a thorough analysis of the job; standardized for all employees; not biased against any race, color, sex, religion, or nationality; and performed by people who have adequate knowledge of the person or job
- be sure to build in the process, a route for recourse if an employee feels he or she has been dealt with unfairly in an appraisal process, e., that the employee can go to his or her supervisor's supervisor. The process should be clearly described in a personnel policy.
2. Design a standard form for performance appraisals (Links to an external site.)
- include the name of the employee, date the performance form was completed, dates specifying the time interval over which the employee is being evaluated, performance dimensions (include responsibilities from the job description, any assigned goals from the strategic plan, along with needed skills, such as communications, administration, etc.), a rating system (e., poor, average, good, excellent), space for commentary for each dimension, a final section for overall commentary, a final section for action plans to address improvements, and lines for signatures of the supervisor and employee
- signatures may either specify that the employee accepts the appraisal or has seen it, depending on wording on the form.
3. Schedule the first performance review for six months after the employee starts employment
- schedule another six months later, and then every year on the employee's anniversary date.
4. Initiate the performance review process and upcoming meeting
- tell the employee that you're initiating a scheduled performance review. Remind them of what's involved in the process. Schedule a meeting about two weeks out.
5. Have the employee suggest any updates to the job description and provide written input to the appraisal
- have them record their input concurrent to your recording of theirs. Have them record their input on their own sheets (their feedback will be combined on the official form later on in the process)
- you and the employee can exchange each of your written feedback in the upcoming review meeting
- note that by now, employees should have received the job descriptions and goals well in advance of the review, i., a year before
- the employee should also be familiar with the performance appraisal procedure and form
6. Document your input – reference the job description and performance goals
- be sure you are familiar with the job requirements and have sufficient contact with the employee to be making valid judgments
- don't comment on the employee's race, sex, religion, nationality, or a handicap or veteran status
- record major accomplishments, exhibited strengths and weaknesses according to the dimensions on the appraisal form, and suggest actions and training or development to improve performance
- use examples of behaviors wherever you can in the appraisal to help avoid counting on hearsay
- always address behaviors, not characteristics of personalities
- the best way to follow this guideline is to consider what you saw with your eyes
- be sure to address only the behaviors of that employee, rather than behaviors of other employees
7. Hold the performance appraisal meeting
- state the meeting's goals of exchanging feedback and coming to action plans, where necessary
- let the employee speak first and give their input
- respond with your own input then discuss areas where you disagree
- attempt to avoid defensiveness; admitting how you feel at the present time, helps a great deal
- discuss behaviors, not personalities
- avoid final terms such as "always," "never," etc.
- encourage participation and be supportive
- come to terms on actions, where possible
- try to end the meeting on a positive note.
8. Update and finalize the performance appraisal form
- add agreed-to commentary on to the form
- mote that if the employee wants to add attach written input to the final form, he or she should be able to do so
- the supervisor signs the form and asks the employee to sign it
- the form and its action plans are reviewed every few months, usually during one-on-one meetings with the employee.
9. Nothing should be surprising to the employee during the appraisal meeting
- any performance issues should have been addressed as soon as those issues occurred
- nothing should be a surprise to the employee later on in the actual performance appraisal meeting
- surprises will appear to the employee as if the supervisor has not been doing his/her job and/or that the supervisor is not being fair
- it is okay to mention the issues in the meeting, but the employee should have heard about them before
CHAPTER 8: DESIGNING AND EVALUATING TRAINING
PROGRAM
Training
- is the “systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that result in improved performance” (Goldstein & Ford, 2002, as cited in Aamodt, 2016)
- is essential for an organization because it ensures that employees have the knowledge and skills necessary to perform the job
- In some cases, a lack of skill or knowledge is due to an organization having difficulty hiring applicants with the necessary knowledge and skills to perform a job; thus, training compensates for the inability to select desired applicants.
Needs Analysis / Assessment
- is the first step in developing an employee training system (Noe, 2013, as cited in Aamodt, 2016)
- purpose is to determine the types of training, if any, that are needed in an organization, as well as the extent to which training is a practical means of achieving an organization’s goals
- the importance of needs assessment was demonstrated by a meta-analysis indicating increased training effectiveness when a needs assessment had been done prior to the creation of the training program (Arthur, Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003, as cited in Aamodt, 2016).
Training Needs Assessment Process
The facilitator gathers all employees who have the same job in a conference room with a whiteboard or flip charts and markers. (Alternatively, if each employee has access, you could use a program like Google Docs or another online shared access service. You would lose some of the immediacies of the more visual whiteboard or flip chart, however.)
Ask each employee to write down their ten most important training needs. Emphasize that the employees should write specific needs. Communication or team building are such broad training needs, as an example, that you would need to do a second training needs assessment on each of these topics, how to resolve a conflict or how to deeply and effectively listen to a coworker are more specific training needs.
Then, ask each person to list their ten training needs. As they list the training needs, the facilitator captures the stated training needs on the whiteboard or flip chart. Don't write down duplicates but do confirm by questioning that the training need that on the surface appears to be a duplicate, really is an exact duplicate. Otherwise, participants can feel as if their needs were marginalized.
When all of the training needs have been listed, use a weighted voting process to prioritize the training needs of the group. In a weighted voting process, you use sticky dots or numbers written in magic marker (not as much fun) to vote on and prioritize the list of training needs. Assign a large dot 25 points and smaller dots five points each. Distribute as many dots as you like but make sure that every employee has the same number of points. Tell needs assessment participants to place their dots on the chart to vote on their priorities. Give the group a ten or fifteen-minute time limit so that you don't have people pondering their decision for a lengthy period of time.
List the training needs in order of importance, with the number of points assigned as votes determining priority, as determined by the sticky dot voting process. Make sure you have taken notes (best taken by someone on their laptop while the process is underway) or the flip chart pages to maintain a record of the training needs assessment session. Or, if available, use more modern technology like a dry-erase board or a web whiteboard.
Take time, or schedule another session, to brainstorm the needed outcomes or goals from the first three to five training sessions identified in the needs
assessment process. This will help as you seek and schedule training to meet the employees' needs. You can schedule more brainstorming later, but you will generally find that you need to redo the needs assessment process after the first few training sessions.
- Note that the top one or two needs of each employee, may not have become the priorities for the group. Try to build that top priority training opportunity into the employee's personal performance development plan. You will also want to use the results for the employees' career development planning when they meet with their managers. This will ensure they have support to pursue the training that they need and want.
Additional Tips about Training Needs Assessment Ψ Training needs assessment can be, and often needs to be, much more complicated than this. But, this is a terrific process for a simple training needs assessment.
Ψ Make sure that you keep the commitments generated by the training needs assessment process. Employees will expect to receive their key identified training sessions with the brainstormed objectives met.
Ψ Ensure that the training needs assessment results are built into the employee's quarterly performance development plan. It is important that the employee's manager becomes a co-owner of the employee's ongoing performance development hopes and needs.
Ψ Make sure that you are tracking the training and development opportunities that you provide for each of your employees.
New Employee Onboarding and Orientation
- employee training that is crucial in bringing a new employee up-to-speed as quickly as possible
- It starts when you welcome the new employee to your organization and continues until the employee is proficiently performing the new job
- these resources will help you announce the arrival of new employees and formulate and implement a successful onboarding process
Evaluating a Training Program
- some guide questions:
Do employees appreciate their learning and
development experience in terms of preparation and delivery?
Do contents of the training program address the
competency gaps?
Are the training methods suitable for the topics and
the participants?
Is there a need for follow-through activities to
ensure that learning is applied at work?
What expected behaviors must be observed from
the participants to prove that they have learned?
How can the supervisor help to maintain and to
continuously improve these behaviors?
With the overall output of the department, what
organizational goals are fulfilled?
Analyzing Training Effectiveness using Kirkpatrick Model
Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Training Evaluation Model
- first published by Donald Kirkpatrick, former Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin in 1959
- each successive level of the model represents a more precise measure of the effectiveness of a training program
- four levels are:
Level 1: Reaction
- you want people to feel that training is valuable, measuring how engaged they were, how actively they contributed, and how they reacted to the training helps you to understand how well they received it
- it also enables you to make improvements to future programs, by identifying important topics that might have been missing
b. Showing your employees that you care about them and their working conditions may also motivate them to work harder. Encourage your team to give you feedback and suggestions about their workspace and development.
4. Expectancy Theory
- proposes that people will choose how to behave depending on the outcomes they expect as a result of their behavior -in other words, we decide what to do based on what we expect the outcome to be
- at work, it might be that we work longer hours because we expect a pay rise.
- also suggests that the process by which we decide our behaviours is also influenced by how likely we perceive those rewards to be
- in this instance, workers may be more likely to work harder if they had been promised a pay rise (and thus perceived that outcome as very likely) than if they had only assumed they might get one (and perceived the outcome as possible but not likely)
- is based on three elements:
1. Expectancy
- the belief that your effort will result in your desired goal
- is based on your past experience, your self- confidence and how difficult you think the goal is to achieve.
2. Instrumentality – the belief that you will receive a reward if you meet performance expectations.
3. Valence – the value you place on the reward.
- people are most motivated if they believe that they will receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable target
- they are least motivated if they don’t want the reward or they don’t believe that their efforts will result in the reward.
- how to apply it to the workplace: a. The key here is to set achievable goals for your employees and provide rewards that they actually want.
5. Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution
explains how we attach meaning to our own, and other people’s, behavior
assumes that people try to determine why we do what we do
the reasons we attribute to our behaviour can influence how we behave in the future
theory is that specific attributions (e. bad luck, not studying hard enough) were less important than the characteristics of that attribution
three main characteristics of attributions that can affect future motivation: Stability - how stable is the attribution? - an unstable factor is less permanent - stable attributions for successful achievements can lead to positive expectations, and thus higher motivation, for success in the future. - however, in negative situations, stable attributions can lead to lower expectations in the future
Locus of control – was the event caused by an internal or an external factor?
Controllability – how controllable was the situation?
- how to apply it to the workplace: a. Make sure you give your employees specific feedback, letting them know that you know they can improve and how they can about it. This, in theory, will help prevent them from attributing their failure to an innate lack of skill and see that success is controllable if they work harder or use different strategies.
b. You could also praise your employees for showing an improvement, even if the outcome was still not correct.
Ψ According to Aamodt (2016), various theories suggest that employees will be highly motivated if:
they have a personality that predisposes them
to be motivated;
their expectations have been met;
the job and the organization are consistent
with their values;
the employees have been given achievable
goals;
the employees receive feedback on their goal
attainment;
the organization rewards them for achieving
their goals;
the employees perceive they are being
treated fairly; and
their coworkers demonstrate a high level of
motivation.
CHAPTER 12: LEADERSHIP
Ψ As cited by Aamodt (2016), recent reviews suggest that:
people high in openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, masculinity, creativity, and authoritarianism and low in neuroticism are more likely to emerge as leaders than their counterparts (Ensari, Riggio, Christian, & Carslaw, 2011; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002);
high self-monitors (people who adapt their
behavior to the social situation) emerge as leaders more often than low self-monitors (Day & Schleicher, 2006; Day, Schleicher, Unckless, & Hiller, 2002);
more intelligent people are more likely to emerge
as leaders than are less intelligent people (Ensari et al., 2011; Judge, Colbert, & Ilies, 2004); and
looking at patterns of abilities and personality traits
is more useful than looking at single abilities and traits (Foti & Hauenstein, 2007)
CHAPTER 13: GROUP BEHAVIOR, TEAMS, AND CONFLICT
Group
- some experts define it as two or more people who perceive themselves as a group and interact in some way
- other definitions require that a group must involve some degree of structure and permanency
- Gordon (2001) believes that for a collection of people to be called a group, the following four criteria must be met: a. The members of the group must see themselves as a unit; b. The group must provide rewards to its members; c. Anything that happens to one member of the group affects every other member; and d. The members of the group must share a common goal
CHAPTER 14: ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
Organizational Development – the process of improving organizational performance by making organization- wide, rather than individual changes.
Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Theory Stage 1: Unfreezing
- the organization must convince employees and other stakeholders (e., shareholders, the community) that the current state of affairs is unacceptable and that change is necessary
- includes 4 steps:
1 Determine what needs to change
- survey the organization to understand the current state
- understand why change has to take place
1 Ensure there is strong support from senior management
- use Stakeholder Analysis and Stakeholder Management to identify and win the support of key people within the organization
- frame the issue as one of organization-wide importance
1 Create the need for change
- create a compelling message about why changes has to occur
- use your vision and strategy as supporting evidence
- communicate the vision in terms of the change required
- emphasize the “why”
1 Manage and understand the doubts and concerns
- remain open to employee concerns and address them in terms of the need to change
Stage 2: Moving/Stage
- the organization takes steps (e., training, new work processes) to move the organization to the desired state
- includes 4 steps:
2 Communicate often
- do so throughout planning and implementation of the changes
- describe the benefits
- explain exactly how the changes will affect everyone
- prepare everyone for what is coming
2 Dispel rumors
answers questions openly and honestly
deal with problems immediately
relate the need for change back to operational necessities
2 Empower action
- provide lots of opportunity for employee involvement
- have line managers provide day-to-day direction
2 Involve people in the process
- generate short-term wins to reinforce the change
- negotiate with external stakeholders as necessary
Stage 3: Refreezing
- the organization develops ways to keep the new changes in place, such as formalizing new policy and rewarding employees for behaving in a manner consistent with the new change
- includes 3 steps:
3 Anchor the changes into the culture
- identify what supports the change
- identify barriers to sustaining change
3 Develop ways to sustain the change
- ensure leadership support
- create a reward system
- establish feedback systems
- adapt the organizational structure as necessary
3 Provide support and training
Five Stages that Employees Go Through During Major Organizational Changes Stage 1: Denial – employees deny that any changes will actually take place, try to convince themselves that the old way is working, and create reasons why the proposed changes will never work
Stage 2: Defense
- when employees begin to believe that change will actually occur, they become defensive and try to justify their positions and ways of doing things
- the idea here is that if an organization is changing the way in which employees perform, there is an inherent criticism that the employees must have previously been doing things wrong
Stage 3: Discarding
employees begin to realize not only that the organization is going to change but that the employees are going to have to change as well
that is, change is inevitable, and it is in the best interest of the employee to discard the old ways and start to accept the change as the new reality
Stage 4 Adaptation
- employees test the new system, learn how it functions, and begin to make adjustments in the way they perform
- employees spend tremendous energy at this stage and can often become frustrated and angry
Stage 5: Internalization – employees have become immersed in the new culture and comfortable with the new system and have accepted their new coworkers and work environment
**Important Factors
- The type of change a. Evolutionary** – is the continual process of upgrading or improving processes b. Revolutionary – a “real jolt to the system” that drastically changes the way things are done; and is more difficult than evolutionary change
2. The reason behind the stage
- financial problems, external mandates, or attempts to improve the organization
- acceptance is lower when employees perceive the change to be in organizational philosophy, a whim on the part of the person making the change or a change because everyone else is changing
- employees are least likely to accept change if they don’t understand or were not told the reasons behind the change
3. The person making the change
- workers are more positive about change when the source of change is within the work group rather than an external source
- changes proposed by leaders who are well liked and respected and who have a history of success are more likely to be accepted than changes proposed by leaders whose motives are suspect
4, A person being changed Change Agents - are people who enjoy change and often make changes just for the sake of it - motto might best be expressed as “If it ain’t broke, break it” - reasoned change is good, but change for the sake of change is disruptive
3. Model of Organizational Change
- created by Porras and Robertson
- focuses on individual behavior
- impact of overall disposition of the organization
4. Empowerment Model
- "OD designs with this approach are specifically designed to increase participation of organizational members" (Cornett, 2011)
5. Teams and Teamwork Model
CHAPTER 15: STRESS MANAGEMENT – DEALING WITH THE
DEMANDS OF LIFE AND WORK
Stress
- is a normal reaction to everyday pressures, but can become unhealthy when it upsets your day-to-day functioning
- can be brief, situational and a positive force motivating performance, but if experienced over an extended period of time it can become chronic stress, which negatively impacts health and well-being
APPENDIX A: WORKING CONDITIONS AND HUMAN
FACTORS
**Types of Problem Employee Behaviors
- Gossiping** – refers to the action of an individual who habitually reveals personal or sensational information about others, whether factual or not.
2. Displaying general incivility/insolence
- includes engaging in rude, disrespectful speech or behaviors and physical intimidation, such as making insulting and demeaning statements; using angry, hostile tones; berating staff and colleagues in front of others; and shouting, throwing things or slamming doors when displeased
- often directed at anyone the employee disagrees with or is agitated by
3. Bullying
- certainly can include uncivil behaviors
- can also use less visible means of harming other employees, such as social isolation, condescending or contemptuous communications, and manipulation
- often directed at specific individuals, characterized by persistent abusive and intimidating behavior or unfair actions causing the recipient to feel threatened, abused, humiliated, or vulnerable
- is about having power over someone else—often a direct report, but also anyone who may seem weaker to the bully
4. Exhibiting Insubordination
- refers to an employee’s intentional refusal to obey an employer’s lawful and reasonable orders
- can manifest as a single event worthy of discipline or termination or as a series of lesser events that work to undermine a supervisor’s authority over time
HR’s Role
- HR professionals can play an integral role in providing guidance and training to managers with difficult employees.
- HR should adopt the role of business partner and help managers look at the presenting issue and uncover the underlying issue.
- A critical step is getting the manager to recognize that a problem exists. HR professional can assist managers in identifying problems and strategizing possible solutions.
- Employees should ensure that conflicts are resolved early on as part of an overall organizational strategy to prevent workplace violence from occurring.
Strategies for Dealing with Difficult Employees and Disruptive Behaviors
- Train
- Take notice and listen
- Provide honest feedback
- Document and follow disciplinary policies
APPENDIX B: FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD ERGONOMICS
AND HEALTH IMPROVEMENT
**The Five Dimensions of Optimal Health
- Physical Health** – are the fitness and exercise initiatives organized in a workplace setting which is influenced by factors such as smoking, alcohol & nutrition.
2. Emotional Health – is an individual’s mental state of being. It is influenced by stress, the reaction to stress and the individual’s ability to relax and devote time to leisure
3. Social Health – is the ability to ‘get along’ with others, such as family members, friends and colleagues, giving and receiving love or friendship and feeling goodwill toward others.
4. Spiritual Health – is the condition of an individual’s spirit, such as having a feeling of purpose in life.
5. Intellectual Health – is conditioned by an individual’s achievements such as those experienced at work, school, hobbies and cultural pursuits or serving the community.
Posture and its Importance in the Workplace Good Posture/Optimal Posture – allows for the least mechanical stress and strain on the body and optimal performance
When posture is poor:
- Pain/injury
- Dysfunctional movement patterns
- Poor training technique or poor use of functional exercise
- Emotional/ mental stress sympathetic dominance
- Poor breathing pattern
- Organ dysfunction (digestion, reproductive, circulatory, adrenal)
References:
Aamodt, M. (2016). Industrial/Organizational Psychology: An Applied Approach 8th Edition. Cengage Learning
Cruz, T. (2020). Module and Syllabus in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Compiled by: Bryle Zyver R. Pineda | @brylezyver
I-O PSY Lecture Notes
Course: Industrial Psychology
University: University of San Carlos
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