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Sample฀APA฀Research฀Paper

Sample฀Title฀Page฀

฀ Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀

Running฀on฀Empty: The฀Effects฀of฀Food฀Deprivation฀on฀฀ Concentration฀and฀Perseverance Thomas฀Delancy฀and฀Adam฀Solberg Dordt฀College

Place฀ manuscript฀ page฀headers฀ one-half฀ inch฀from฀ the฀top.฀Put฀ five฀spaces฀ between฀the฀ page฀header฀ and฀the฀page฀ number.

Full฀title,฀ authors,฀and฀ school฀name฀ are฀centered฀ on฀the฀page,฀ typed฀in฀ uppercase฀and฀ lowercase.

34

The฀abstract฀ summarizes฀ the฀problem,฀ participants,฀ hypotheses,฀ methods฀ used,฀ results,฀and฀ conclusions.

Sample฀Abstract฀

Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀

Abstract This฀study฀examined฀the฀effects฀of฀short-term฀food฀deprivation฀on฀two฀ cognitive฀abilities—concentration฀and฀perseverance.฀Undergraduate฀ students฀(N-51)฀were฀tested฀on฀both฀a฀concentration฀task฀and฀a฀ perseverance฀task฀after฀one฀of฀three฀levels฀of฀food฀deprivation:฀none,฀12฀ hours,฀or฀24฀hours.฀We฀predicted฀that฀food฀deprivation฀would฀impair฀both฀ concentration฀scores฀and฀perseverance฀time.฀Food฀deprivation฀had฀no฀ significant฀effect฀on฀concentration฀scores,฀which฀is฀consistent฀with฀recent฀ research฀on฀the฀effects฀of฀food฀deprivation฀(Green฀et฀al.,฀1995;฀Green฀ et฀al.,฀1997).฀However,฀participants฀in฀the฀12-hour฀deprivation฀group฀ spent฀significantly฀less฀time฀on฀the฀perseverance฀task฀than฀those฀in฀both฀ the฀control฀and฀24-hour฀deprivation฀groups,฀suggesting฀that฀short-term฀ deprivation฀may฀affect฀some฀aspects฀of฀cognition฀and฀not฀others.

฀ Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀ ฀ The฀relatively฀sparse฀research฀on฀food฀deprivation฀has฀left฀room฀for฀ further฀research.฀฀First,฀much฀of฀the฀research฀has฀focused฀either฀on฀chronic฀ starvation฀at฀one฀end฀of฀the฀continuum฀or฀on฀missing฀a฀single฀meal฀at฀the฀ other฀end฀(Green฀et฀al.,฀1995).฀฀Second,฀some฀of฀the฀findings฀have฀been฀ contradictory.฀฀One฀study฀found฀that฀skipping฀breakfast฀impairs฀certain฀ aspects฀of฀cognition,฀such฀as฀problem-solving฀abilities฀(Pollitt,฀Lewis,฀ Garza,฀&฀Shulman,฀1983).฀฀However,฀other฀research฀by฀M.฀W.฀Green,฀N.฀ A.฀Elliman,฀and฀P.฀J.฀Rogers฀(1995,฀1997)฀has฀found฀that฀food฀deprivation฀ ranging฀from฀missing฀a฀single฀meal฀to฀24฀hours฀without฀eating฀does฀not฀ significantly฀impair฀cognition.฀฀Third,฀not฀all฀groups฀of฀people฀have฀been฀ sufficiently฀studied.฀฀Studies฀have฀been฀done฀on฀9–11฀year-olds฀(Pollitt฀et฀ al.,฀1983),฀obese฀subjects฀(Crumpton,฀Wine,฀&฀Drenick,฀1966),฀college-age฀ men฀and฀women฀(Green฀et฀al.,฀1995,฀1996,฀1997),฀and฀middle-age฀males฀ (Kollar฀et฀al.,฀1964).฀฀Fourth,฀not฀all฀cognitive฀aspects฀have฀been฀studied.฀฀ In฀1995฀Green,฀Elliman,฀and฀Rogers฀studied฀sustained฀attention,฀simple฀ reaction฀time,฀and฀immediate฀memory;฀in฀1996฀they฀studied฀attentional฀ bias;฀and฀in฀1997฀they฀studied฀simple฀reaction฀time,฀two-finger฀tapping,฀ recognition฀memory,฀and฀free฀recall.฀฀In฀1983,฀another฀study฀focused฀on฀ reaction฀time฀and฀accuracy,฀intelligence฀quotient,฀and฀problem฀solving฀ (Pollitt฀et฀al.).฀฀ ฀ According฀to฀some฀researchers,฀most฀of฀the฀results฀so฀far฀indicate฀that฀ ฀cognitive฀function฀is฀not฀affected฀significantly฀by฀short-term฀fasting฀(Green฀ et฀al.,฀1995,฀p.฀246).฀฀However,฀this฀conclusion฀seems฀premature฀due฀to฀the฀฀ relative฀lack฀of฀research฀on฀cognitive฀functions฀such฀as฀concentration฀and฀ ฀ perseverance.฀To฀date,฀no฀study฀has฀tested฀perseverance,฀despite฀its฀ ฀ importance฀in฀cognitive฀functioning.฀฀In฀fact,฀perseverance฀may฀be฀a฀better฀฀ indicator฀than฀achievement฀tests฀in฀assessing฀growth฀in฀learning฀and฀฀ thinking฀abilities,฀as฀perseverance฀helps฀in฀solving฀complex฀problems฀ ฀ (Costa,฀1984).฀฀Another฀study฀also฀recognized฀that฀perseverance,฀better฀ ฀ learning฀techniques,฀and฀effort฀are฀cognitions฀worth฀studying฀(D’Agostino,฀฀ 1996).฀฀Testing฀as฀many฀aspects฀of฀cognition฀as฀possible฀is฀key฀because฀the฀฀ nature฀of฀the฀task฀is฀important฀when฀interpreting฀the฀link฀between฀food฀ ฀deprivation฀and฀cognitive฀performance฀(Smith฀&฀Kendrick,฀1992).

Clear฀ transitions฀ guide฀readers฀ through฀the฀ researchers’฀ reasoning.

The฀ researchers฀ explain฀how฀ their฀study฀ will฀add฀to฀ past฀research฀ on฀the฀topic.

The฀ researchers฀ support฀their฀ decision฀to฀ focus฀on฀ concentration฀ and฀ perseverance.

฀ Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀ Therefore,฀the฀current฀study฀helps฀us฀understand฀how฀short-term฀food฀ deprivation฀affects฀concentration฀on฀and฀perseverance฀with฀a฀difficult฀task.฀฀ Specifically,฀participants฀deprived฀of฀food฀for฀24฀hours฀were฀expected฀to฀ perform฀worse฀on฀a฀concentration฀test฀and฀a฀perseverance฀task฀than฀those฀ deprived฀for฀12฀hours,฀who฀in฀turn฀were฀predicted฀to฀perform฀worse฀than฀ those฀who฀were฀not฀deprived฀of฀food.฀ Method Participants ฀ Participants฀included฀51฀undergraduate-student฀volunteers฀(32฀ females,฀19฀males),฀some฀of฀whom฀received฀a฀small฀amount฀of฀extra฀credit฀ in฀a฀college฀course.฀฀The฀mean฀college฀grade฀point฀average฀(GPA)฀was฀3.฀฀ Potential฀participants฀were฀excluded฀if฀they฀were฀dieting,฀menstruating,฀ or฀taking฀special฀medication.฀฀Those฀who฀were฀struggling฀with฀or฀had฀ struggled฀with฀an฀eating฀disorder฀were฀excluded,฀as฀were฀potential฀ participants฀addicted฀to฀nicotine฀or฀caffeine.฀฀ Materials ฀ Concentration฀speed฀and฀accuracy฀were฀measured฀using฀an฀online฀ numbers-matching฀test฀(psychtests.com/tests/iq/concentration)฀ that฀consisted฀of฀26฀lines฀of฀25฀numbers฀each.฀฀In฀6฀minutes,฀participants฀ were฀required฀to฀find฀pairs฀of฀numbers฀in฀each฀line฀that฀added฀up฀to฀10.฀฀ Scores฀were฀calculated฀as฀the฀percentage฀of฀correctly฀identified฀pairs฀out฀of฀ a฀possible฀120.฀฀Perseverance฀was฀measured฀with฀a฀puzzle฀that฀contained฀ five฀octagons—each฀of฀which฀included฀a฀stencil฀of฀a฀specific฀object฀(such฀ as฀an฀animal฀or฀a฀flower).฀฀The฀octagons฀were฀to฀be฀placed฀on฀top฀of฀ each฀other฀in฀a฀specific฀way฀to฀make฀the฀silhouette฀of฀a฀rabbit.฀฀However,฀ three฀of฀the฀shapes฀were฀slightly฀altered฀so฀that฀the฀task฀was฀impossible.฀฀ Perseverance฀scores฀were฀calculated฀as฀the฀number฀of฀minutes฀that฀a฀ participant฀spent฀on฀the฀puzzle฀task฀before฀giving฀up.฀ Procedure ฀ At฀an฀initial฀meeting,฀participants฀gave฀informed฀consent.฀฀Each฀ consent฀form฀contained฀an฀assigned฀identification฀number฀and฀requested฀ the฀participant’s฀GPA.฀฀Students฀were฀then฀informed฀that฀they฀would฀be฀ notified฀by฀e-mail฀and฀telephone฀about฀their฀assignment฀to฀one฀of฀the฀

The฀ researchers฀ state฀their฀ initial฀ hypotheses.

Headings฀and฀ subheadings฀ show฀the฀ paper’s฀ organization.

The฀ experiment’s฀ method฀is฀ described,฀ using฀the฀ terms฀and฀ acronyms฀of฀ the฀discipline.

Passive฀voice฀ is฀used฀to฀ emphasize฀ the฀ experiment,฀ not฀the฀ researchers;฀ otherwise,฀ active฀voice฀ is฀used.

฀ Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀ Results ฀ Perseverance฀data฀from฀one฀control-group฀participant฀were฀ eliminated฀because฀she฀had฀to฀leave฀the฀session฀early.฀฀Concentration฀data฀ from฀another฀control-group฀participant฀were฀dropped฀because฀he฀did฀not฀ complete฀the฀test฀correctly.฀฀Three฀manipulation-check฀questions฀indicated฀ that฀each฀participant฀correctly฀perceived฀his฀or฀her฀deprivation฀condition฀ and฀had฀followed฀the฀rules฀for฀it.฀฀The฀average฀concentration฀score฀was฀ 77฀(SD฀=฀14),฀which฀was฀very฀good฀considering฀that฀anything฀over฀ 50฀percent฀is฀labeled฀“good”฀or฀“above฀average.”฀฀The฀average฀time฀spent฀ on฀the฀puzzle฀was฀24฀minutes฀(SD฀=฀10),฀with฀a฀maximum฀of฀40฀ minutes฀allowed. ฀ We฀predicted฀that฀participants฀in฀the฀24-hour฀deprivation฀group฀ would฀perform฀worse฀on฀the฀concentration฀test฀and฀the฀perseverance฀task฀ than฀those฀in฀the฀12-hour฀group,฀who฀in฀turn฀would฀perform฀worse฀than฀ those฀in฀the฀control฀group.฀฀A฀one-way฀analysis฀of฀variance฀(ANOVA)฀ showed฀no฀significant฀effect฀of฀deprivation฀condition฀on฀concentration,฀ F(2,46)฀=฀1,฀p฀=฀.36฀(see฀Figure฀1).฀฀Another฀one-way฀ANOVA฀indicated฀

Figure฀1.

฀ No฀deprivation฀ 12-hour฀deprivation฀ 24-hour฀deprivation฀ Deprivation฀Condition

100

Mean฀score฀on฀concentration฀test

The฀writers฀ summarize฀ their฀findings,฀ including฀ problems฀ encountered.

“See฀Figure฀ 1”฀sends฀ readers฀to฀a฀ figure฀(graph,฀ photograph,฀ chart,฀or฀ drawing)฀ contained฀in฀ the฀paper.

All฀figures฀ and฀ illustrations฀ (other฀than฀ tables)฀are฀ numbered฀ in฀the฀order฀ that฀they฀฀ are฀first฀ mentioned฀in฀ the฀text.

฀ Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀ a฀significant฀effect฀of฀deprivation฀condition฀on฀perseverance฀time,฀ F(2,47)฀=฀7,฀p฀<฀.05.฀฀Post-hoc฀Tukey฀tests฀indicated฀that฀the฀12-hour฀ deprivation฀group฀(M฀=฀17,฀SD฀=฀7)฀spent฀significantly฀less฀time฀ on฀the฀perseverance฀task฀than฀either฀the฀control฀group฀(M฀=฀26,฀SD฀=฀ 6)฀or฀the฀24-hour฀group฀(M฀=฀28,฀SD฀=฀12),฀with฀no฀significant฀ difference฀between฀the฀latter฀two฀groups฀(see฀Figure฀2).฀฀No฀significant฀ effect฀was฀found฀for฀gender฀either฀generally฀or฀with฀specific฀deprivation฀ conditions,฀Fs฀<฀1.฀฀Unexpectedly,฀food฀deprivation฀had฀no฀significant฀ effect฀on฀concentration฀scores.฀฀Overall,฀we฀found฀support฀for฀our฀ hypothesis฀that฀12฀hours฀of฀food฀deprivation฀would฀significantly฀impair฀ perseverance฀when฀compared฀to฀no฀deprivation.฀฀Unexpectedly,฀24฀hours฀ of฀food฀deprivation฀did฀not฀significantly฀affect฀perseverance฀relative฀to฀the฀ control฀group.฀฀Also฀unexpectedly,฀food฀deprivation฀did฀not฀significantly฀ affect฀concentration฀scores.฀

Discussion ฀ The฀purpose฀of฀this฀study฀was฀to฀test฀how฀different฀levels฀of฀food฀ deprivation฀affect฀concentration฀on฀and฀perseverance฀with฀difficult฀tasks.฀฀

30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Mean฀score฀on฀perseverance฀test

Figure฀2.฀฀

฀ No฀deprivation฀ 12-hour฀deprivation฀ 24-hour฀deprivation฀ Deprivation฀Condition

The฀ researchers฀ restate฀their฀ hypotheses฀ and฀the฀ results,฀and฀ go฀on฀to฀ interpret฀ those฀results.

Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀ after฀the฀testing.฀฀In฀addition,฀the฀time฀of฀day฀when฀the฀respective฀groups฀ took฀the฀tests฀may฀have฀influenced฀the฀results:฀฀those฀in฀the฀24-hour฀ group฀took฀the฀tests฀in฀the฀morning฀and฀may฀have฀been฀fresher฀and฀more฀ relaxed฀than฀those฀in฀the฀12-hour฀group,฀who฀took฀the฀tests฀at฀night.฀฀ Perhaps,฀then,฀the฀motivation฀level฀of฀food-deprived฀participants฀could฀ be฀effectively฀tested.฀฀Second,฀longer-term฀food฀deprivation฀periods,฀such฀ as฀those฀experienced฀by฀people฀fasting฀for฀religious฀reasons,฀could฀be฀ explored.฀It฀is฀possible฀that฀cognitive฀function฀fluctuates฀over฀the฀duration฀ of฀deprivation.฀฀Studies฀could฀ask฀how฀long฀a฀person฀can฀remain฀focused฀ despite฀a฀lack฀of฀nutrition.฀฀Third,฀and฀perhaps฀most฀fascinating,฀studies฀ could฀explore฀how฀food฀deprivation฀affects฀learned฀industriousness.฀As฀ stated฀above,฀one฀possible฀explanation฀for฀the฀better฀perseverance฀times฀ in฀the฀24-hour฀group฀could฀be฀that฀they฀spontaneously฀improved฀their฀ perseverance฀faculties฀by฀simply฀forcing฀themselves฀not฀to฀eat฀for฀24฀ hours.฀Therefore,฀research฀could฀study฀how฀food฀deprivation฀affects฀the฀ acquisition฀of฀perseverance.฀฀ ฀ In฀conclusion,฀the฀results฀of฀this฀study฀provide฀some฀fascinating฀ insights฀into฀the฀cognitive฀and฀physiological฀effects฀of฀skipping฀meals.฀ Contrary฀to฀what฀we฀predicted,฀a฀person฀may฀indeed฀be฀very฀capable฀of฀ concentrating฀after฀not฀eating฀for฀many฀hours.฀On฀the฀other฀hand,฀if฀one฀฀ is฀taking฀a฀long฀test฀or฀working฀long฀hours฀at฀a฀tedious฀task฀that฀requires฀ perseverance,฀one฀may฀be฀hindered฀by฀not฀eating฀for฀a฀short฀time,฀as฀ shown฀by฀the฀12-hour฀group’s฀performance฀on฀the฀perseverance฀task.฀ Many฀people—students,฀working฀mothers,฀and฀those฀interested฀in฀fasting,฀ to฀mention฀a฀few—have฀to฀deal฀with฀short-term฀food฀deprivation,฀ intentional฀or฀unintentional.฀This฀research฀and฀other฀research฀to฀follow฀ will฀contribute฀to฀knowledge฀of฀the฀disadvantages—and฀possible฀ advantages—of฀skipping฀meals.฀฀The฀mixed฀results฀of฀this฀study฀suggest฀ that฀we฀have฀much฀more฀to฀learn฀about฀short-term฀food฀deprivation.

The฀ conclusion฀ summarizes฀ the฀ outcomes,฀ stresses฀the฀ experiment’s฀ value,฀and฀ anticipates฀ further฀ advances฀on฀ the฀topic.

Running฀on฀Empty฀฀฀฀฀ References Costa,฀A.฀L.฀(1984).฀Thinking:฀How฀do฀we฀know฀students฀are฀getting฀better฀ at฀it?฀Roeper฀Review,฀6,฀197–199. Crumpton,฀E.,฀Wine,฀D.฀B.,฀&฀Drenick,฀E.฀J.฀(1966).฀Starvation:฀Stress฀ or฀satisfaction?฀Journal฀of฀the฀American฀Medical฀Association,฀196,฀ 394–396.฀฀ D’Agostino,฀C.฀A.฀F.฀(1996).฀Testing฀a฀social-cognitive฀model฀of฀ achievement฀motivation.-Dissertation฀Abstracts฀International฀Section฀ A:฀Humanities฀&฀Social฀Sciences,฀57,฀1985. Eisenberger,฀R.,฀&฀Leonard,฀J.฀M.฀(1980).฀Effects฀of฀conceptual฀task฀ difficulty฀on฀generalized฀persistence.฀American฀Journal฀of฀Psychology,฀ 93,฀285–298. Green,฀M.฀W.,฀Elliman,฀N.฀A.,฀&฀Rogers,฀P.฀J.฀(1995).฀Lack฀of฀effect฀of฀ short-term฀fasting฀on฀ cognitive฀function.฀Journal฀of฀Psychiatric฀ Research,฀29,฀245–253.฀฀ Green,฀M.฀W.,฀Elliman,฀N.฀A.,฀&฀Rogers,฀P.฀J.฀(1996).฀Hunger,฀caloric฀ preloading,฀and฀the฀selective฀processing฀of฀food฀and฀body฀shape฀ words.฀British฀Journal฀of฀Clinical฀Psychology,฀35,฀143–151. Green,฀M.฀W.,฀Elliman,฀N.฀A.,฀&฀Rogers,฀P.฀J.฀(1997).฀The฀study฀effects฀of฀ food฀deprivation฀and฀ incentive฀motivation฀on฀blood฀glucose฀levels฀ and฀cognitive฀function.฀Psychopharmacology,฀134,฀88–94.฀฀ Hickman,฀K.฀L.,฀Stromme,฀C.,฀&฀Lippman,฀L.฀G.฀(1998).฀Learned฀ industriousness:฀Replication฀in฀principle.฀Journal฀of฀General฀ Psychology,฀125,฀213–217. Keys,฀A.,฀Brozek,฀J.,฀Henschel,฀A.,฀Mickelsen,฀O.,฀&฀Taylor,฀H.฀L.฀(1950).฀ The฀biology฀of฀human฀starvation฀(Vol.฀2).฀Minneapolis:฀University฀of฀ Minnesota฀Press. Kollar,฀E.฀J.,฀Slater,฀G.฀R.,฀Palmer,฀J.฀O.,฀Docter,฀R.฀F.,฀&฀Mandell,฀A.฀J.฀ (1964).฀Measurement฀of฀stress฀in฀fasting฀man.฀Archives฀of฀General฀ Psychology,฀11,฀113–125.฀฀฀ Pinel,฀J.฀P.฀(2000).฀Biopsychology฀(4th฀ed.).฀Boston:฀Allyn฀and฀Bacon.

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