SAMPLE MATERIAL Cambridge IGCSE fi and O Level Ben Walsh History Option B: The 20th Century Second edition 25 YEARS Wo rkingforover aC bm rid ge As ses s mentInternatio na lE du ca oti n WITH

The Cambridge IGCSE fi and O Level History Student Textbook helps you navigate syllabus objectives confi dently. It is supported by a Workbook, a Study and Revision Guide, as well as by Student and Whiteboard eTextbook editions and an Online Teacher’s Guide. All the digital components are available via the Dynamic Learning platform. Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level Modern World History Second edition ISBN 9781510421189 March 2018 Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level Modern World History Workbook ISBN 9781510421202 June 2018 Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level Modern World History Study and Revision Guide ISBN 9781510421196 January 2019 Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level Modern World History Student eTextbook ISBN 9781510420045 April 2018 Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level Modern World History Whiteboard eTextbook ISBN 9781510420052 March 2018 Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level Modern World History Online Teacher’s Guide ISBN 9781510424104 July 2018 Online Teacher’s Guide Deliver more inventive and fl exible Cambridge IGCSEfi and O Level lessons with a cost-effective range of online resources. » Save time planning and ensure syllabus coverage with a scheme of work, teaching activities and worksheets, and expert teaching guidance. » Improve students’ confidence with exam-style questions including sample answers. » Consolidate knowledge with answers to all questions in the Student Book. The Online Teacher’s Guide is available via the Dynamic Learning platform. To fi nd out more and sign up for a free, no obligation Dynamic Learning Trial, visit hoddereducation/dynamiclearning. IGCSE® is the registered trademark of Cambridge Assessment International Education IGCSE International Education Also available for the new Cambridge IGCSEIGCSEfi syllabuses from March 2018:syllabuses from March 2018:syllabuses from March 2018:syllabuses from March 2018: To find your local agent please visit hoddereducation/agents or email international@hoddereducation

Every effort have been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SE. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (44) 01235 400454. Lines are open 9–5, Monday to Saturday, with a 24- hour message answering service. Visit our website at hoddereducation ® IGCSE is the registered trademark of Cambridge International Examinations © Ben Walsh 2018 First published in 2013 This second edition published in 2018 by Hodder Education An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment London EC4Y 0DZ Impression number 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Cover photo © tbc Second edition typeset in [to be completed] by [to be completed] Printed and bound in [to be completed] A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 5104 2118 9

iii Contents How this book will help you to achieve your best in Cambridge IGCSE®/O level History SECTION 1 Core content Option B The 20th century: International Relations since 1919 Part 1 The Inter-War Years, 1919– 1 Were the peace treaties of 1919–23 fair? 2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success? 3 Why had international peace collapsed by 1939? Part 2 The Cold War and the Gulf, 1945– 4 Who was to blame for the Cold War? 5 How effectively did the USA contain the spread of Communism? 6 How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe 1948–c? 7 Why did events in the Gulf matter, c–2000? Exam Focus: Core content Option B SECTION 2 Depth Studies 8 Russia, 1905– 9 Germany, 1918– 10 The USA, 1919– Exam Focus: Depth Studies Exam Focus: Components 3 and 4 Glossary Index Photo acknowledgements

SECTION 1 Core Content Option B The 20th century: International Relations since 1919

2 PART 1 The Inter-War Years, 1919– 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1926 Germany joins the League of Nations 1928 The Kellogg– Briand Pact: most nations agree not to go to war to settle their disputes Oct 1929 The Wall Street Crash leads to a worldwide economic depression The First World War Post-war crises Improving international relations Jan–June 1919 The Paris Peace Conference: Allied leaders meet and draw up the Treaty of Versailles and other peace treaties Jan 1920 The League of Nations starts work. Its task is to sort out disputes between countries fairly 1923 Crisis in Germany as France invades the Ruhr and inflation makes money worthless 1925 The Locarno Treaties: Germany appears to accept the Treaty of Versailles

1

Were the peace treaties

of 1919–23 fair?

FOCUS POINTS

What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?
What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923?
Could the treaties be justified at the time? However long or violent a war is, eventually the opposing sides must make peace. But because war is destructive and leaves a bitter legacy, the peacemaking after a long conflict can be the hardest job of all. The people who had that role in 1919 had a particularly hard task. The First World War involved more countries, using more powerful weapons, causing greater casualties and physical destruction, than any war before it. The war had bankrupted some countries. It led to revolutions in others. There was bitterness and resentment. In this post-war atmosphere almost everyone agreed that part of the job of the peacemakers was to avoid another war like it – but no one agreed how to do that. Any treaty is a balancing act. The peacemakers have to keep the victors happy but ensure that the defeated country accepts the terms of the peace. Was it really possible to produce a treaty which all sides would have seen as fair? That’s the key question you will have to think about in this chapter. You are going to investigate what happened when these peacemakers got together to draw up the peace treaties. You will focus on: Q what the peacemakers were hoping to achieve Q how they worked Q what they decided Q why they decided it. Then you will reach conclusions about the key question – how ‘fair’ were the treaties they came up with, which means thinking about: Q whether people at the time thought the treaties were fair, and why or why not Q whether historians (with the benefit of hindsight) think they were fair. And remember... the peace process was not just about Germany. Between 1919 and 1923 the peacemakers drew up five treaties (one for each of the defeated powers) although in this chapter you are going to focus most on the Treaty which dealt with Germany: the Treaty of Versailles. This British cartoon was published in 1919 shortly after the terms of the Treaty of Versailles had been announced. A German man is holding the treaty terms which say how much Germany has to pay for the damage caused by the war. 1 Does he think the Treaty is fair? Why or why not? 2 Does the cartoonist think the Treaty is fair? Why or why not? 3 What is the message of this cartoon?

7 1 Were the peace treaties of 1919–23 fair? Factfile The Fourteen Points: a summary 1 No secret treaties. 2 Free access to the seas in peacetime or wartime. 3 Free trade between countries. 4 All countries to work towards disarmament. 5 Colonies to have a say in their own future. 6 German troops to leave Russia. 7 Independence for Belgium. 8 France to regain Alsace–Lorraine. 9 Frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted. 10 Self-determination for the peoples of eastern Europe (they should rule themselves and not be ruled by empires). 11 Serbia to have access to the sea. 12 Self-determination for the people in the Turkish empire. 13 Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea. 14 League of Nations to be set up. Factfile The Paris Peace Conference, 1919– Q The Conference took place in the Palace of Versailles (a short distance from Paris). Q It lasted for twelve months. Q Thirty-two nations were supposed to be represented, but no one from the defeated countries was invited. Q Five treaties were drawn up at the Conference. The main one was the Treaty of Versailles, which dealt with Germany. The other treaties dealt with Germany’s allies (see Factfile on page 19). Q All of the important decisions on the fate of Germany were taken by Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France), Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain) and Wilson (President of the USA) who together were known as ‘The Big Three’. Q The Big Three were supported by a huge army of diplomats and expert advisers, but the Big Three often ignored their advice. SOURCE 1 A cartoon published in 1919 in an Australian newspaper. Source Analysis 1 Study the main features of Source 1. Who is making the soup? Who is helping him? What are they adding to the mix? What is already in there?

8 PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919– Did everyone share Wilson’s viewpoint? Not surprisingly, when Wilson talked about lasting peace and justice other leaders agreed with him. After all, who would want to stand up in public and say they were against a just and lasting peace?! However, many were doubtful about Wilson’s ideas for achieving it. For example, ‘self-determination’: it would be very difficult to give the peoples of eastern Europe the opportunity to rule themselves because they were scattered across many countries. Some people were bound to end up being ruled by people from another group with different customs and a different language. Some historians have pointed out that while Wilson talked a great deal about eastern and central Europe, he did not actually know very much about the area. There were other concerns as well. So let’s look at the aims and views of the other leaders at the Paris Peace Conference: David Lloyd George (from Britain) and Georges Clemenceau (from France). Did Lloyd George agree with Wilson? In public Lloyd George praised Wilson and his ideas. However, in private he was less positive. He complained to one of his officials that Wilson came to Paris like a missionary to rescue the European savages with his little sermons and lectures. He agreed with Wilson on many issues, particularly that Germany should be punished but not too harshly. He did not want Germany to seek revenge in the future and possibly start another war. Like Wilson he was deeply concerned that a harsh treaty might lead to a communist revolution like the one in Russia in 1917. He also wanted Britain and Germany to begin trading with each other again. Before the war, Germany had been Britain’s second largest trading partner. British people might not like it, but the fact was that trade with Germany meant jobs in Britain. However, unlike Wilson, Lloyd George had the needs of the British empire in mind. He wanted Germany to lose its navy and its colonies because they threatened the British empire. SOURCE 2 We want a peace which will be just, but not vindictive. We want a stern peace because the occasion demands it, but the severity must be designed, not for vengeance, but for justice. Above all, we want to protect the future against a repetition of the horrors of this war. Lloyd George speaking to the House of Commons before the Peace Conference. SOURCE 3 If I am elected, Germany is going to pay... I have personally no doubt we will get everything that you can squeeze out of a lemon, and a bit more. I propose that every bit of [German-owned] property, movable and immovable, in Allied and neutral countries, whether State property or private property, should be surrendered by the Germans. Sir Eric Geddes, a government minister, speaking to a rally in the general election campaign, December 1918. Profile David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain) Background Q Born 1863. Q First entered politics in 1890. Q He was a very able politician who became Prime Minister in 1916 and remained in power until 1922. Character A realist. As an experienced politician, he knew there would have to be compromise. Thus he occupied the middle ground between the views of Wilson and Clemenceau. SOURCE We want a peace which will be just, but not vindictive. We want a stern peace because the occasion demands it, but the severity must be designed, not for vengeance, but for justice. Above all, we want to protect the future against a repetition of the horrors of this war. Source Analysis 1 Would you say Source 2 is optimistic about the prospects for peace? Make sure you can explain your answer by referring to specific features of the cartoon. If I am elected, Germany is going to pay... I have personally no doubt we will get everything that you can squeeze out of a lemon, and a bit more. I propose that every bit of countries, whether State property or private property, should be surrendered by the Germans. Source Analysis 1 In what ways are Sources 2 and 3 different? 2 Are there any ways in which they are similar?

10 PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919– How did the peacemaking process actually work? In theory, the major issues like borders and reparations (compensation for war damage) were discussed in detail by all the delegates at the conference (see Source 4) – over 32 leaders with all their officials and advisers! As Source 5 shows, it quickly became impossible to consult everyone. SOURCE 5 ‘Wilson the Just’ quickly disappointed expectations. Everything about him served to disillusion those he dealt with. All too soon the President was qualifying the Fourteen Points with ‘Four Principles’ and modifying them with ‘Five Particulars’. Finding that one principle conflicted with another, he made compromising declarations about both. The Big Three abandoned Wilson’s principle of open covenants openly arrived at, consulting others only when they needed expert advice. They were occasionally to be seen crawling round their maps on the hearth rug. Sometimes they agreed and, according to one British official ‘were so pleased with themselves for doing so that they quite forgot to tell anyone what the agreement was’. Sometimes they almost came to blows. Lloyd George made rapid, quick fire points but they were ineffective against Clemenceau’s granite obstinacy. Even Wilson’s self-important confidence crashed against the rock of Clemenceau ... Clemenceau was delighted when the American President fell ill. He suggested that Lloyd George should bribe Wilson’s doctor to make the illness last. Historian Piers Brendon writing in 2006. SOURCE 4 A painting showing the delegates at the Paris Peace Conference at work. It was made for the Illustrated London News which was a very popular British newspaper aimed at a mass market. It was particularly well-known for using paintings even after photography was well established. The paper’s artists were given official access to the meetings of the Peace Conference to report and create illustrations. This image had the official approval of the Big Three. Source Analysis Study Source 4 carefully and then discuss these questions. 1 Why was this picture published? 2 What impression was it trying to give of the conference and the delegates? 3 After studying Source 4 and the other information in this section, do you think the impression is accurate? Make sure you can explain your view. 4 If you were using this image to introduce a documentary on the Treaty of Versailles, what main points would you make in the commentary that the viewer would hear?

11 1 It soon became clear it would be impossible to agree terms that everyone Were the peace treaties of 1919–23 fair? would agree about. Q Clemenceau clashed with Wilson over many issues. The USA had not suffered nearly as badly as France in the war. Clemenceau resented Wilson’s more generous attitude to Germany. They disagreed over what to do about Germany’s Rhineland and coalfields in the Saar. In the end, Wilson had to give way on these issues. In return, Clemenceau and Lloyd George did give Wilson what he wanted in eastern Europe, despite their reservations about his idea of self-determination. However, this mainly affected the other four treaties, not the Treaty of Versailles. Q Clemenceau also clashed with Lloyd George, particularly over Lloyd George’s desire not to treat Germany too harshly. For example, Clemenceau said that ‘if the British are so anxious to appease Germany they should look overseas and make colonial, naval or commercial concessions’. Clemenceau felt that the British were quite happy to treat Germany fairly in Europe, where France rather than Britain was most under threat. However, they were less happy to allow Germany to keep its navy and colonies, which would be more of a threat to Britain. Q Wilson and Lloyd George did not always agree either. Lloyd George was particularly unhappy with point 2 of the Fourteen Points, allowing all nations access to the seas. Similarly, Wilson’s views on people ruling themselves were threatening to the British government, for the British empire ruled millions of people all across the world from London. ACTIVITY Who said what about whom? Here are some statements that were made by the Big Three at the Paris Peace Conference. Your task is to decide which leader made the statement and also whom he was talking about. You will need to be able to explain your answer. a) ‘He is too anxious to preserve his empire to want self- determination for colonies.’ b) ‘His country has been ruling the waves for too long to accept the need for freedom of the seas.’ c) He wants to wreck a country which in a few years could be a valuable trading partner and a source of vital jobs.’ d) ‘Freedom of the seas is all very well but who or what will protect my country’s ships and trade?’ e) ‘What does he know about colonies and how they should be ruled? He probably doesn’t know where most of them are!’ f) ‘How can I work with a man who thinks he is the first leader in 2000 years who knows anything about peace?’ g) ‘If he is so anxious to make concessions to the Germans then they should look overseas and make naval or colonial concessions.’ h) ‘He is stuck in the past. If he gets his way Germany will be left bitter and vengeful and there will be another war in a few years.’ i) ‘He is very happy to give concessions to Germany in areas which do not threaten his country.’ j) ‘If you carry on annoying me I am going to punch you!’ k) ‘There are new, better ways of making a peace agreement. He should accept that all states should disarm’ l) ‘He must make concessions to the Germans, perhaps over the Rhineland or Alsace–Lorraine.’ Clemenceau Wilson Lloyd George

13 1 Were the peace treaties of 1919–23 fair? Q Germany’s overseas empire was taken away. It had been one of the causes of bad relations between Britain and Germany before the war. Former German colonies, such as Cameroon, became mandates controlled by the League of Nations, which effectively meant that France and Britain controlled them. The size and power of the German army was a major concern, especially for France. The Treaty therefore restricted German armed forces to a level well below what they had been before the war. Q The army was limited to 100,000 men. Q C ONSCRIPTION was banned – soldiers had to be volunteers. Q Germany was not allowed armoured vehicles, submarines or aircraft. Q The navy could have only six battleships. Q The Rhineland became a DEMILITARISED zone. This meant that no German troops were allowed into that area. The Rhineland was important because it was the border area between Germany and France (see Figure 6). Q Previous methods of keeping peace had failed and so the League of Nations was set up as an international ‘police force’. (You will study the League in detail in Chapter 2.) Q Germany was not invited to join the League until it had shown that it was a peace-loving country. 4 Germany’s armed forces 5 League of Nations Revision Tip The more you know about the Treaty of Versailles, the more it will help you. Make sure you can remember one or two key points under each of these headings: Blame Reparations Arms Territory. FOCUS TASK A Why did the victors not get everything they wanted? 1 Work in threes. Look back at the profiles of Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George on pages 6, 8 and 9. Choose one each. Study the terms of the Treaty on these two pages. Think about: a) which terms of the Treaty would please your chosen leader and why b) which terms would displease him and why c) how far he seemed to have achieved his aims. d) Report your findings to your partners. 2 Look back at the chart you compiled on page 6. There should be a blank fifth column. Put the heading ‘How they felt about the Treaty’ and fill it in for each leader with a one-sentence summary. 3 a) Choose one of the following phrases to finish off this sentence: The victors did not all get what they wanted because...

Clemenceau bullied Wilson and Lloyd George into agreeing to a harsh treaty.
the leaders’ aims were too different – they could not all have got what they wanted and someone was bound to be disappointed.
public opinion in their home countries affected the leaders’ decisions. b) Write a paragraph to explain why you chose that phrase. c) Write two more paragraphs to explain whether there is evidence to support the other two. FOCUS TASK B Was the Treaty of Versailles fair? It is important to make up your own mind about this key question and be able to back up your view with evidence and arguments. So place yourself on this scale and write some sentences to explain your position. This is provisional. You will return to it again. The Big Three wasted a golden opportunity to achieve a fair and lasting peace settlement. The Big Three were in a no-win situation from the start.

14 PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919– What was the impact of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany? The government that took Germany to war in 1914 had been overthrown in a revolution and the new democratic government in Germany was hoping for fair and equal treatment from the Allies. When the terms were announced on 7 May the Germans were horrified. Their reasons are summarised in the diagram below. The new German government refused to sign the Treaty and the German navy sank its own ships in protest. At one point, it looked as though war might break out again. But what could the German leader Friedrich Ebert do? Germany would quickly be defeated if it tried to fight. Reluctantly, Ebert agreed to accept the terms of the Treaty and it was signed on 28 June 1919. German criticisms of the Treaty of Versailles War guilt and reparations Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war and therefore had to pay reparations.

This ‘war guilt’ clause was particularly hated. Germans did not feel they had started the war. They felt at the very least that blame should be shared.
They were bitter that Germany was expected to pay for all the damage caused by the war even though the German economy was severely weakened. German territories Germany certainly lost a lot of territory.
10 per cent of its land in Europe
All of its overseas colonies
12 per cent of its population
16 per cent of its coalfields and almost half of its iron and steel industry. This was a major blow to German pride, and to its economy. Both the Saar and Upper Silesia were important industrial areas. Meanwhile, as Germany was losing colonies, the British and French were increasing their empires by taking control of German territories in Africa. Disarmament The German army was reduced to 100,000 men. It could have no air force, and only a tiny navy. Germans felt these terms were very unfair. An army of 100,000 was very small for a country of Germany’s size and the army was a symbol of German pride. Also, despite Wilson’s Fourteen Points calling for disarmament, none of the Allies were being asked or forced to disarm in the same way. The Fourteen Points and the League of Nations
To most Germans, the treatment of Germany was not in keeping with Wilson’s Fourteen Points. For example, while self-determination was given to countries such as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, German-speaking peoples were being hived off into new countries such as Czechoslovakia to be ruled by non-Germans. Anschluss (union) with Austria was forbidden.
Germany felt further insulted by not being invited to join the League of Nations. Non-representation Germans were angry that their government was not represented at the peace talks and that they were being forced to accept a harsh treaty without any choice or even comment. Germans did not feel they had lost the war so they should not have been treated as a defeated country.